ARTÍCULOS DE INVESTIGACIÓN

 

Primary Language Teacher Education in Italy: Refining Syllabus Design by Listening to Learners' Voices*¹

 

Enseñar lenguas en la educación primaria en Italia: perfeccionamiento del diseño del sílabo escuchando las voces de los alumnos

 

 

Franca Poppi **; Marina Bondi ***

** Franca Poppi. Associate Professor of English Linguistics. Faculty of Arts and Humanities. University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy. E-mail: franca.poppi@unimore.it

*** Marina Bondi. University of Modena and Reggio Emilia. Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia, Italy. E-mail: mbondi@unimo.it

 

 

---

ABSTRACT

Decisions concerning syllabus design are generally based on considerations linked to the level of competence to be attained by the end of the course. The Common European Framework of Reference is one of the many yardsticks against which language competence can be measured. However, the guidelines it provides may need further qualifications, especially when dealing with foreign-language primary school teaching.

This paper sets out to examine how the opinions of a group of primary school teachers who have been trained to become English teachers can be exploited for the purpose of refining syllabus design for further training courses.

Key words: syllabus design, English language teaching, primary school, teacher training courses

---

RESUMEN

La definición del sílabo de un curso se basa generalmente en consideraciones vinculadas al nivel final de la competencia lingüística que se desea alcanzar. Para medir este nivel de competencia lingüística se puede recurrir a diferentes instrumentos, uno de los cuales es el Marco Común Europeo de Referencia. Dicho documento contiene, sin embargo, una serie de indicaciones que necesitan, sobre todo en el caso de la enseñanza primaria, de una mayor definición.

El presente trabajo ilustra cómo las opiniones de profesores de educación primaria que frecuentaron un curso para enseñar la lengua inglesa en la escuela elemental, pueden utilizarse para identificar, de la forma más precisa posible, los contenidos de nuevos cursos de formación para los profesores de lengua inglesa de la escuela elemental.

Palabras clave: diseño de curso, enseñanza de la lengua inglesa, escuela elemental, cursos de formación docente

---

RÉSUMÉ

En général, la définition du plan du cours se fonde sur des considérations liées au niveau final de compétence linguistique que l'on se propose d'atteindre. Pour mesurer ce niveau de compétence linguistique, il est possible d'avoir recours à de nombreux outils, et en particulier au Cadre Européen Commun de Référence. Ce document contient toutefois des indications qui demandent une définition plus approfondie, notamment dans le cas de l'enseignement primaire.

Cette recherche se propose d'illustrer la façon dont les opinions de professeurs qui ont enseigné l'anglais en primaire peuvent être exploitées afin d'établir, de manière ponctuelle, les contenus de nouveaux cours de formation pour les enseignants de langue anglaise de ce même niveau.

Mots-clés : définition du plan du cours, enseignement de la langue anglaise, école élémentaire, cours de formation pour professeurs

---

 

 

1. INTRODUCTION

The last ten years² have seen a major Europe-wide initiative to expand the teaching of modern foreign languages to primary age pupils. This process of gradual introduction of foreign language teaching at the primary level has involved most European countries and has remarkably increased the number of pupils who are learning at least one foreign language.³

In Italy, the teaching of a foreign language at the primary level was introduced in 1985, and in 2004 it was extended to all five years of primary school, with English as the most widely taught language.

In order to cater to the new demand for foreign-language (FL) primary school teachers, the Ministry of Education was compelled to organise national in-service training courses for practising primary teachers, who were thus encouraged and enabled to add a foreign language to their repertoire of teaching subjects or skills.

As more and more training courses were organized, it became apparent that it was necessary to define a common standard for the training programmes organized locally by different organizations and/or University Language Centres. Accordingly, Local Education Authorities have implemented various initiatives, including, above all, the development of a language profile for primary school English teachers, validated first at the local level (see Bondi and Poppi, 2006) and later on at the national level (AAVV, 2007) by a panel that included representatives of University Language Centres, representatives of professional teacher-training organizations, the authors of the present study and members of the Ministry of Education.⁴

This nation-wide effort aimed at defining a common standard for the various training courses has also involved the definition of a syllabus which teacher-trainers were to use. Accordingly, a provisional syllabus was devised (AAVV, 2007: 67-72 and 74-77), which will have, in due time, to be refined and validated, so as to tailor it to the requirements of a particular kind of learners, i.e., generalist primary teachers.

Primary teachers are usually highly autonomous practitioners, often operating across the full range of the primary curriculum. However, there is a danger of poor self-image for primary teachers of a foreign language because they may view themselves as inferior counterparts to perceived language experts residing in the secondary schools. Secondary teachers are in a position to criticise or even ignore the work done by primary teachers in introducing the foreign language to their pupils. There is therefore the need to bolster confidence as well as competence among primary foreign language teachers.

The present study relies on the assumption that the opinions of primary school generalist teachers who have been following a training course (i.e., the learners' voices) can offer precious and valuable insight for the purpose of refining the design of a syllabus to be used during training courses addressed to English-language primary-teachers-to-be, organized locally in Modena and Reggio Emilia.

The paper will first provide some background information on the question of foreign language learning in Italian schools, with particular attention to the organization of training courses for primary school generalist teachers. Later, the main issues that have contributed to defining the theoretical framework of the training courses organized by the Local Education Authorities in Modena and Reggio Emilia will be introduced. In addition, the approaches to foreign language learning, teacher training, syllabus design and self-assessment will be discussed. Finally, in Section Four, the data provided by a small-scale case study will be introduced. In particular, the results of a series of self-assessment questionnaires completed by a group of generalist primary teachers who had followed a 420-hour training course will be analysed and integrated with the answers obtained from semi-structured interviews with the same teachers. The conclusions will then provide evidence of how learners' voices (i.e. the trainees' opinions) have clearly shown that it is necessary to refine the syllabus that had been provisionally defined as part of the nation-wide effort aimed at defining a common standard for the various training courses all over Italy. In fact, this syllabus, though appropriate for the language level, has a more general target in mind. As the evidence provided by the present study seems to confirm, a syllabus addressed to primary language teachers-to-be should devote particular attention to the abilities actually needed in the context of primary language teaching.

 

2. THE BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

2.1 Foreign Language Teaching in Italian Primary Schools

In Italy, a survey carried out by IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Students' Achievement) between 1967 and 1973⁵ showed that the language competence of Italian students at the end of their course of studies was well below the level of competence of students in other industrialized countries. Therefore, several measures were undertaken, aimed at providing in-service training courses for high school teachers and at introducing FL learning in primary schools. The ILSSE project (Insegnamento Lingue Straniere nella Scuola Elementare)⁶ was thus developed, marking the beginning of initiatives in the area of early foreign language learning in Italy.

Following that first initiative, a number of steps have been undertaken to pave the way for the introduction of FL teaching throughout the five grades of Italian primary schools. We can mention, for instance, the development of the 'new primary school curricula' in 1985, which can be considered another cornerstone for promoting foreign-language teaching at the primary level. In fact, these new curricula officially established the need for early foreign language learning in order to achieve an ever-increasing integration among the member states of the European Union. However, it took five years to complete the reorganization of Italian primary schools. Only in 1990, thanks to the Act of Parliament number 148/90, the presence of a single class teacher was replaced by the presence of two or more teachers, one of whom was in charge of the teaching of the foreign language. Finally, in 2004, the teaching of the FL was extended to all five years of primary school, with English as the most widely taught language.

Since there was an insufficient number of trained language teachers available to cater to this new demand at the primary level, the Italian government initiated national in-service training courses for practising primary teachers to encourage and enable them to add a foreign language to their repertoire of teaching subjects or skills.⁷ At the same time, while courses for generalist primary teachers were organized, many schools also took advantage of trained, specialist, peripatetic language teachers.

2.2 The Organization of Courses Addressed to Primary School Language Teachers

At first there was great variety in the policies, models and types of training on offer. However, as more and more training courses were organized, it became apparent that it was necessary to define a common standard for training programmes that were organized locally by different organizations and/or University Language Centres. Accordingly, on July 4th 2005, a document was issued, which singled out the principles on the basis of which of the various training courses had to be organized, focusing most of all on the training process itself, which had to include action-research practices, cooperative learning, workshops, problem solving and self-training procedures. This document also stated that in order to teach a foreign language, primary teachers had to reach the B1 level⁸ of the CEFR.⁹

After the end of the first series of training courses the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia was asked by the Local Education Authorities for Modena and Reggio Emilia to act as a consultant regarding the organization of new training courses and the definition of the syllabus that was to be used during these courses.

2.3 Principles and Definitions

Without revisiting the debate on the usefulness of formal, conscious learning and informal unconscious acquisition (cf. Bialystok, 1982; Davies, Criper and Howatt, 1984; Larsen-Freeman and Long, 1991, 1997, for instance), it is worth paraphrasing Little et al., (1989: 2), that second language learning¹⁰ seems to be fostered by contexts that are rich in opportunities for interaction in and with the foreign language. This interaction can be both social and psychological, as learners must interact with the language internally at various levels of consciousness if they are to reach a satisfactory result. Whether or not such internal interaction takes place appears to depend on how a course and its syllabus and organization relate to the learner's past experience, linguistic or other, and his or her general interests and needs.

It is therefore advisable to refrain from traditional approaches to linguistic syllabus design,¹¹ which define syllabus, at its simplest level, as a statement of what is to be learnt (cf. Hutchinson and Waters, 1987:80). This definition is, in fact, a rather traditional interpretation, focusing as it does on outcomes rather than process.

On the contrary, the process is quite often the key factor, both when it comes to triggering the learners' interaction in and with the foreign language and when it comes to judging when their performance (comprehension and production) is adequate for the situation in which they are operating or intend to operate.

Judging the adequacy of one's performance is a matter of self-assessment (Dickinson, 1996: 31), an activity which is often hindered by the learners' lack of confidence that they are able to do so, in spite of the fact that they do it all the time (though privately and informally).

Until recently, the value of this human process has been largely ignored in pedagogy. Learners were rarely asked to assess their performance, much less have a say in the construction of evaluation instruments. Pedagogically, the term self-assessment was considered oxymoronic. On the contrary, it is important to legitimise self-assessment and to give learners frequent opportunities for self-assessment, as self-assessment accuracy is a condition of learner autonomy. If learners can appraise their own performance accurately enough, they will not have to depend entirely on the opinions of teachers and at the same time they will be able to make teachers aware of their individual learning needs.

In the last decade, with the increased attention to learner-centred curricula, needs analysis, and learner autonomy, the topic of self-assessment has become of particular interest (Blanche, 1988; Oskarsson, 1997). It is now being recognized that learners do have the ability to provide meaningful input into the assessment of their performance, and that this assessment can be valid (LeBlanc and Painchaud, 1985; Oskarsson, 1981, 1984; Coombe, 1992).

The reliability of learners' judgement is subject to variables whose influence is difficult to establish, one of them being the learners' age. On this topic, possible forms of guided self-assessment in adult language learning have been outlined (see, for instance Oskarsson 1978 and 1981), in which steps have also been suggested in order to further develop methods that can be used within schemes for foreign language learning by adults.

2.4 Theoretical Framework of the Local Training Courses

Teacher training is not an easy task, but it can be further complicated when a far too perfect and distant picture of a teacher's roles is provided. In the case of the training courses organized by the Local Authorities in Modena and Reggio Emilia, the principles and definitions that have been described in the previous section were referred to. Moreover, it was decided to focus on learner education rather than strict training, following approaches highlighted by Kohonen et al. (2000).

In this context, the traditional approach to motivation, where one's behaviour is seen as motivating another's, is considered, following Ushioda (1997), a contradiction in terms, as self-motivation becomes the only logically coherent locus. Self-motivation is ''a capacity that can and should be developed as an integral dimension of learner autonomy'' (Ushioda, 1997, p. 38), as it plays a role of pivotal importance in optimising and sustaining one's involvement in learning. In short, training courses need to cater to the learners' motivational agendas and bring the world of their outside interests and experiences into play. In this way, the learners will develop a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and content of their learning, which will provide the foundation for autonomous and effective learning (Little, 1991, p. 4).

 

 

Banking on the above, it was decided to adapt the theoretical framework described in Table 1 for the purpose of organizing the training courses addressed to primary-school, English-language teachers-to-be and obtaining useful indications for future course-development.

 

3. RESEARCH DESIGN

3.1 The Research Population

The teachers involved in this study are 30 in-service generalist teachers who had attended a training course (380 hours of language instruction and 40 hours devoted to the development of foreign-language, teaching-learning skills) organized by ''Direzione Didattica'' (Local Education Authority) in Mirandola.¹² This training course was meant to provide them with the necessary level of language competence to teach English in primary schools.

 

 

The teachers involved were all females.¹³ Their ages ranged from 32 to 50. Of the group, 60% of the teachers taught Italian language and other subjects in the humanities. Forty percent of the teachers taught scientific subjects. A placement test that had been administered before the beginning of the training course had shown that half of the teachers were beginners, 30% had already reached level A1 and 20% had reached level A2 of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR).

3.2 Data Collection

At the end of the training course, the teachers were asked to self-assess their ability to perform the different activities as defined by descriptors contained in a series of questionnaires, referring to a 1-5 rating scale ranging from 'not able to,' to 'fully competent' (see Appendix 1 for the complete list of the descriptors).¹⁴

The questionnaires were taken from the online grids provided on the PLEASE website (Primary Language Teacher Education: Autonomy and Self-Evaluation), jointly developed by the Universities of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy, and Stirling, Scotland, as part of a Socrates Lingua Action 'A' project entitled 'Autonomy in Primary Language Teacher Education.'¹⁵

The PLEASE website was devised to offer primary language teachers the chance to assess their competence by reviewing three different checklists, each containing a series of statements that described the required language behaviours for primary language teaching in the contexts of listening, spoken interaction, spoken production, reading, and writing. These statements had been obtained by adapting the B1 and B2 level descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference to those areas that had been singled out as particularly meaningful for English-language, primary-school teachers (cf. Bondi, 1999: 57), namely language for classroom management (the language needed to manage classroom activities and interaction), language for effective professional self-development, and language awareness (the teachers' awareness of the language and their analytic skills in order to improve both their teaching and their own language learning).

The results of the generalist teachers' self-assessment (which can be found in Appendix 2) were then integrated with the feedback provided in a series of interviews with the same teachers. The interviews were informally structured and had a two-fold aim: to make the teachers express their comments on the course and its organization, and to have them single out those skills that, in their opinion, needed further improvement. The following questions were asked:

1. Was the amount of time devoted to the various skills adequate?
2. Did the organization of the course meet your requirements?
3. Would you have liked to focus on certain skills more than on others? Which ones?
4. Were the explanations provided by the teacher-trainers clear and detailed?
5. Were the teacher-trainers able to explain the course objectives?
6. Did the teacher-trainers clearly explain the differences between the different language certificates: i.e., PET vs. CEPT?¹⁶
7. Which were, in your opinion, the advantages/disadvantages of online autonomous training?¹⁷

 

4. DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Methodology

After having had the generalist teachers review the questionnaires, only some of the 77 available descriptors have been taken into account. Specifically, it was decided to single out those descriptors for which the majority of the teachers had rated their competence as being 1 or 2 (i.e., below the average standard of competence, signalled by a rating of 3). Accordingly, for each of the five skills, a list was compiled, which included only those abilities which were not competently mastered by the majority of the generalist teachers.

Then, by reviewing the transcripts of the trainees' interviews, it was possible to refine the data collected and establish which skills had to receive particular attention on occasion of future training courses. These skills were selected on the grounds that they most needed further practice, and on the understanding that, since they had attracted the trainees' attention, they might contribute to the development of the internal interaction between the learners and the foreign language, which is at the base of successful language learning.

a. Listening

Looking at the data from the teachers' self-evaluation in the area of listening, we can see that in the domain of language use for classroom management, most teachers seem to consider themselves capable of mastery, with varying degrees of competence. However, of the various skills in the context of professional self-development, more than half the teachers consider themselves not able to:

1. understand both the main points and specific details of a short talk (e.g., an in-service presentation) in standard spoken language, delivered at natural speed;
2. understand fairly complex arguments (e.g., in lectures or media programmes) on a familiar topic or when the context is well known;
3. use a variety of strategies such as listening for main points and relying on contextual clues for comprehension; and
4. understand most of the information of relevant, authentic materials in standard, spoken language, delivered at natural speed.

b. Spoken Interaction

In the context of classroom language, there is only one ability that is not fully developed by the majority of the teachers:

1. acting as a mediator for students when they encounter native speaker language, e.g., by a visitor to the classroom, or a videoconferencing link

In the area of professional self-development, most of the trainees do not consider themselves able to:

1. ask for clarification or information on occasion of seminars or language workshops; and
2. comment on the ideas, opinions, reactions, and contributions of others, showing awareness of their feelings (e.g., during seminars or language workshops).

c. Spoken Production

Looking at the data on teachers' self-evaluation in the area of spoken production, we can see that in the domain of language use for classroom management, most teachers seem to consider themselves capable of mastery of the various skills, with varying degrees of competence. Nonetheless, in the context of professional self-development, more than half the teachers consider themselves unable to:

1. go beyond simple reproduction and generate new language in familiar and some unfamiliar contexts;
2. alk in some detail about a range of professional experiences and opinions and explain points of view; and
3. make a short formal presentation/report to colleagues with the support of notes or of an outline (e.g., on occasion of seminars or language workshops).

d. Writing

In the context of classroom language, there is only one ability that is not fully developed by the majority of the teachers:

1. writing fairly long and easily comprehensible stories for children.

In the area of professional self-development, the trainees do not consider themselves able to:

1. take notes in the foreign language in lectures, seminars or from written sources (e.g., for revision purposes).

5. DISCUSSING THE RESULTS

5.1 The Importance of Including the Learners' Voices

The answers provided by trainees on occasion of the interviews served the purpose of complementing the results of the self-assessment questionnaires. In particular, for concerns related to the organization of the courses, the trainees remarked that since the lessons (380 hours) had taken place over a period of 18 months, they lacked the time to actually master the new issues that had been introduced. Moreover, they unanimously agreed that the teacher-trainers had been able to guide them and pinpoint their weaknesses and strengths and that the explanations had always been clear and detailed.

As for the objectives of the course, a sustained number of the trainees reported that even though they had been told from the start that the course was aimed at providing them with the necessary qualifications to teach English in primary schools, they still would have liked to get the PET certificate, which is a B1 level Cambridge ESOL certificate, rather than the CEPT certificate. These remarks clearly highlight the fact that it will be necessary, on the occasion of future training courses, to sensitise generalist teachers towards the effective needs of primary school foreign language teaching. In fact, in order to teach a foreign language in primary schools, a teacher should master, in addition to B1 level language competences, other specific skills, which are connected with language for classroom management, language for professional self-development, and language awareness, alongside pedagogic and methodological skills. The PET certificate, though appropriate for the level, covers a wider range of skills than those strictly needed by primary language teachers and has a different, more general target in mind, while overlooking issues which are especially relevant to primary teachers. It is therefore necessary to refer to a different certificate that can assess teachers' competences in those areas and skills that are most important for the purposes of primary school teaching.

The 40 hours devoted to the development of foreign-language, teaching-learning skills included 20 hours of frontal lessons and 20 hours of autonomous learning via online resources. First of all, the trainees remarked that they would have liked to be able to devote more hours to issues connected with methodological training. Moreover, only few of them considered online training completely satisfactory, thanks to the possibility of working at one's own pace according to one's individual schedule, and of accessing a multiplicity of available links. However, the majority of the trainees claimed that online training had made them feel alone, without anyone who could guide, advise, and spur them on. In other words, they greatly missed the interaction with the teacher-trainer and/or with their fellow learners.

5.2 The Importance of Language Competence

An initial survey of the answers provided by the generalist teachers clearly shows that most of the abilities they considered not fully mastered would probably require a higher level of competence than the one that is needed in order to qualify for primary FL teaching (namely, level B1 of the CEFR). This confirms that in-service training is absolutely needed at the end of the initial training courses as well. In addition, the teachers seemed to be more at ease with the language needed for classroom management than with the language needed for professional self-development.

Looking at the answers provided by the teachers in the area of 'language use for classroom management,' it became immediately apparent that the vast majority of the teachers seemed to be more confident with the reading and writing skills rather than with those abilities that refer to the area of audio-oral skills. This finding is confirmed by the results provided by the 'language use for professional self-development' section, which seems to reinforce the idea that the teachers feel more confident when they have some time for reflection (in writing, or even when listening to themselves on a tape).

This sense of inadequacy on the part of the teachers, which is noticeable in spoken production and spoken interaction in particular, was also explicitly mentioned by all the teachers in the short interviews that were aimed at obtaining their overall comments on course contents and organization.

5.3 The Trainees' Perception of Their Needs

During the interviews that were part of the present study, the teachers complained that during the course there had not been time enough to focus on the various skills. Even though the five skills had all been taken into account, listening and speaking activities would have required more time in order to let the trainees actually practice what they had been learning. In fact, most teachers remarked that while a person can work on his or her reading and writing skills at home, at his or her convenience, looking words up in a dictionary and consulting grammar books, a tutor and/or a peer is needed for the purpose of practising listening and speaking skills.

Another remark concerned the amount of time devoted to methodological training. In fact, the majority of the teachers claimed that 100 hours should be required rather than only 40 hours. This extra time, the teachers suggested, could be used for experimenting with different teaching-learning approaches and especially for practising lesson-planning activities and other tasks connected with the actual management of everyday classroom activities.

By integrating these comments with the results provided in the self-assessment checklists, one may postulate that in a syllabus addressed to primary teachers, the role/importance of spoken skills should outweigh the role of the written ones.

In other words, on the basis of the data that have thus far been collected and analysed, one might suggest that teachers are most concerned with the need to interact with their learners inside the classroom and/or with fellow teachers on occasion of seminars, workshops, presentations, etc., thus relying as much as possible on the 'technical' abilities typical of their profession.

5.4 Implications for Syllabus Design

Any syllabus can be refined in several different ways. The present study has taken into account one of many possible syllabi. Therefore, in accordance with the limited evidence provided by the results of the present study, the following suggestions for the refinement of syllabi for future training courses addressed to English-language teachers-to-be can be advanced:

• more time should be devoted to practising those structures and functions that are called to the fore whenever audio/oral skills are to be deployed (such as, for instance, questions, use of interrogatives, interrogative forms of all verbs and modals listed in the syllabus);
• activities strictly connected with classroom management and professional self-development should be focused on (e.g., lesson planning, story telling, taking part in in-service presentations, asking for or providing clarifications and information), paying attention to the language forms and functions needed to carry them out;
• greater emphasis should be placed on helping trainees practise role-playing activities that simulate class interactions, so as to make them master the relevant lexis;
• interactions between peers and/or trainees and their tutor should be favoured; and
• rather than focusing on a general kind of lexis, the technical vocabulary connected with the FL teaching profession should be focused on.

 

6. CONCLUSIONS

Syllabus planning entails a series of decisions that can be compared to the fitting into place of the different parts of a puzzle, in the sense that quite often, the initial decisions about the contents of the course may be modified on the basis of the learners' feedback.

Once the general framework of the language syllabus has been sketched out, it will obviously be necessary to better refine the contents to be delivered, making sure that those issues and activities that are perceived by practising teachers as the most relevant and meaningful are included.

In the case of this particular study, after considering both the local and the professional cultures of the learners, it was decided to adapt rather than adopt existing tools in order to negotiate the objectives of the teacher training programme after having listened to the very voice of the actors involved.

This paper has focused on the results of a series of self-assessment activities that have been integrated with information provided by semi-structured interviews. The data obtained have highlighted the presence of generalisable trends in the teachers' perceptions of the most important skills connected with their profession, which can be referred to by teacher educators and syllabus designers in order to refine the syllabus design of further courses addressed to FL primary teachers-to-be.

As previously remarked, the number of teachers who have thus far reviewed the self-assessment checklists is quite small. However, in the near future, as more teachers self-assess their competence in different areas, more meaningful data will be made available.

 

REFERENCES

1. AAVV (1977). Misurazione del rendimento scolastico - Indagine I.E.A. e situazione italiana. In Annali della Pubblica Istruzione. Roma.        [ Links ]

2. AAVV (2007). Quale profilo e quali competenze per l'inglese del docente di scuola primaria. Un'esperienza di ricerca. Firenze: AS Agenziascuola.        [ Links ]

3. Alexander, L.G. (1976). Where do we go from here: A reconsideration of some basic assumptions affecting course design. English Language Teaching, 30(2), 89-103.         [ Links ]

4. Bialystock, E. (1982). On the relationship between knowing and using forms. Applied Linguistics, 3,181-206.        [ Links ]

5. Blanche, P. (1988). The FLIFLC Study. Monterey: The US Department of Defense Language Institute.        [ Links ]

6. Blondin, C., Candelier, M., Edelenbos, P., Johnstone, R., Kubanek-German, A. & Taeschner, T. (1998). Foreign languages in primary and pre-school education. A review of recent research within the European Union. London: CILT.        [ Links ]

7. Bondi, M. (1999). A language profile for the FL primary teacher. In M. Bondi, P. Faber, W. Gewehr, M.J. Jiménez Raya, L. Low, C. Mewald & A. Peck (Eds.), Autonomy in primary language teacher education. An approach using modern technology. (pp. 53-59). Stirling: Scottish CILT.        [ Links ]

8. Bondi, M. & Poppi, F. (2006). L'insegnante di lingua straniera nella scuola primaria: per un profilo e per una certificazione delle competenze. In M. Bondi, D. Ghelfi, B. Toni (Eds.), Teaching English. Ricerca e pratiche innovative per la scuola primaria. (pp.13- 29). Napoli: Tecnodid Editrice.        [ Links ]

9. Bondi, M. & Poppi, F. (2007). Devising a language certificate for primary school teachers of English. Profile Journal, 8, 145-164.        [ Links ]

10.Coombe, C. (1992). The Relationship Between Self-assessment Estimates of Functional Literacy Skills and Basic English Skills Test Results in Adult Refugee ESL Learners. Ph.D. Diss. The Ohio State University.        [ Links ]

11. Davies, A., Criper, C. & Howatt A.P.R. (Eds), (1984). Interlanguage. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.        [ Links ]

12. Dickinson, L. (1987). Self-Instruction in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.        [ Links ]

13. Dubin, F. & Olshtain, E. (1986). Course design: Developing programs and materials for language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.         [ Links ]

14. Edelenbos, P., Johnstone, R. & Kubanek, A. (2006). The main pedagogical principles underlying the teaching of languages to very young learners. Languages for the children of Europe: Published research, good practice and main principles. European Commission Report. EAC 89/04.         [ Links ]

15. Gattegno, C. (1972). Teaching foreign languages in schools: The silent way (2nd ed.). New York: Educational Solutions.         [ Links ]

16. Hutchinson, T. & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes: A learning centred approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.         [ Links ]

17. Kohonen, V. (1992). Experiential language learning: Second language learning as cooperative learner education. In D. Nunan (ed.), Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching (pp. 14-39). Cambridge: CUP.        [ Links ]

18. Kohonen, V., Jaaatinen, R., Kaikkonen, P., & Lehtovaara, J. (Eds.), (2000). Experiential Learning in Foreign Language Education. England: Pearson Education Limited.        [ Links ]

19. Larsen-Freeman, D. & Long, M. H. (1991, 1997). An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Edinburgh: Addison Wesley Longman Limited.        [ Links ]

20. LeBlanc, R. & Painchaud, O. (1985). Self-Assessment as a Second Language Instrument. TESOL Quarterly, 19(4), 673-687.        [ Links ]

21. Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy. Definitions, issues and problems. Dublin: Authentik.         [ Links ]

22. Little, D., Devitt, S. & Singleton, D. (1989). Learning Foreign Languages from Authentic Texts: Theory and Practice. Dublin: Authentik.        [ Links ]

23. Lopriore, L. (2006). The Long and Winding Road. A Profile of Italian Primary EFL Teachers. In M. McCloskey, J. Orr & M. Dolitsky. (Eds.), Teaching English as a Foreign Language in Primary School, (pp. 59-82). Alexandria, Virginia: TESOL Publications.        [ Links ]

24. Mitchell, R. & Myles, F. (2001). Second language learning: Concepts and issues. In Candlin, C. & Mercer, N., English Language Teaching in its Social Context, (pp. 11-27). London and New York: Routledge.        [ Links ]

25. Nikolov, M. & Curtain, H. (Eds.), (2000). An early Start: Young learners and modern languages in Europe and beyond. Graz: European Center for Modern Languages.        [ Links ]

26. Nunan, D. (1988). Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

27. Oskarsson, M. (1978). Approaches to Self-Assessment in Foreign Language Learning. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.        [ Links ]

28. Oskarsson, M. (1981). L'auto-evaluation dans l'apprentissage des langues pour adultes: quelques resultats des recherches. Études de Linguistique Appliquée, 41, 102-130.        [ Links ]

29. Oskarsson, M. (1984). Self-Assessment of Foreign Language Skills: A Survey of Research and Development Work. Strasbourg: Council of Europe.        [ Links ]

30. Oskarsson, M. (1997). Self-Assessment of Foreign and Second Language Proficiency. The Encyclopedia of Language and Education, (pp 175-187), Vol. 7. Kluwer Academic Publishers.        [ Links ]

31. Poppi, F., Low, L., & Bondi, M. (2003). Fostering autonomy: Implementing change in teachers' education. In J. Gollin, G. Ferguson & H. Trappes-Lomax (Eds.), Papers from three IALS Symposia — 2000, 2001 and 2002, (pp. 1-11). Edinburgh: IALS.        [ Links ]

32. Poppi, F., Low, L., & Bondi, M. (2005).PLEASE (Primary Language teacher Education: Autonomy and Self-Evaluation). In B. Holmberg, M. Shelley & C. White (Eds.), Distance education and languages. Evolution and change, (pp. 295-308). Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters.        [ Links ]

33. Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and Methods In Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.         [ Links ]

34. Ushioda, E. (1997). The role of motivational thinking in autonomous language learning. In D. Little, B. Voss (Eds.), Language Centres: Planning for the New Millennium (pp. 38-50). Plymouth: CercleS.        [ Links ]

35. White, R.V. (1988). The ELT Curriculum: Design, Innovation and Management. Oxford: Blackwell.         [ Links ]

36. Wilkins, D. A. (1976). Notional Syllabuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.         [ Links ]

37. Yalden, J. (1987). Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.        [ Links ]

 

WEBSITES

PLEASE website. Retrieved on August 20th, 2008, from http://www.please.unimore.it

The Common European Framework of Reference. Retrieved on August 20th, 2008, from http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf

Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe - 2005 Edition Retrieved on August 20th, 2008, from http://www.eurydice.org/portal/page/portal/Eurydice/showPresentation?pubid=049EN

Documento a cura del Comitato Tecnico Scientifico I.N.D.I.R.E.: Formazione di competenze linguistico-comunicative della lingua inglese dei docenti della scuola primaria. Retrieved on August 20th, 2008, from http://www.istruzioneer.it/allegato.asp?ID=211218

 

 

*Recibido: 18-11-07
Aceptado: 14-01-09

 

 

NOTES

1 This article derives from two research projects. The former was funded by USR Emilia Romagna (local Education Authority in Emilia Romagna) and the latter was funded by the Italian Ministry of Education and was called Progetto di ricerca-azione sul profilo delle competenze linguistiche in uscita dei docenti della scuola. (Action-research project on the profile and language competences of primary school foreign-language teachers).
2 The changes brought about by the past ten years can be observed by comparing the survey carried out by Blondin, Candelier, Edelenbos, Johnstone, Kubanek-German & Taeschner (1998) with the more recent study by Edelenbos, Johnstone. and Kubanek (2006). An overview of policies and approaches is also provided by Nikolov and Curtain (2000).
3 According to a report published by the European network Euridice, in 2002 approximately 50% of all pupils were learning at least one foreign language. This figure has been increasing rapidly since the end of the 1990s, when educational reforms took place in a number of countries, particularly in central and eastern Europe, Denmark, Spain, Italy and Iceland, cf. http://www.eurydice.org/portal/page/portal/Eurydice/showPresentation?pubid=049EN
4 Relying on locally gathered expertise, attempts have also been made to devise a national certificate, which is to become the official qualification needed by any primary teacher to start teaching English in the local state schools. Cf. for instance, the CEPT (Certificate of English for Primary Teachers), jointly developed by the Language Centres of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia and the University of Parma, described in Bondi and Poppi (2007).
5 The results of this survey are available in Annali della Pubblica Istruzione (1977).
6 Foreign Language Teaching in Primary Schools.
7 For a critical overview of training programmes in Italy, see Lopriore (2006).
8 Cf. Documento a cura del Comitato Tecnico Scientifico I.N.D.I.R.E., which states: ''[...] se il docente non è uno specialista, ha una competenza minima di livello B1 in una lingua straniera...'' http://www.istruzioneer.it/allegato.asp?ID=211218. Information of a more general kind can also be found in Bondi, Ghelfi & Toni (2006).
9 The Common European Framework of Reference is available at: http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf. It is a document that consists of a series of levels (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2) across five language strands — listening, spoken interaction, spoken production, reading and writing. It has been designed with adult language learners/users, as well as self-assessment in mind. It has the benefit of not being specific to any country or context and offers a continuum for identifying language proficiency within a self-assessment grid.
10 By 'second language learning' we refer to the learning of any language at any level, provided that the learning of this second language takes place sometime later than the acquisition of the first language. (Cf. Mitchell and Myles, 2001: 11). This expression will be used as a synonym for 'foreign language learning'.
11 On syllabus design see, for instance, Gattegno, 1972; Alexander, 1976; Wilkins, 1976; Dubin and Olshtain, 1986; Richards and Rodgers, 1986; Nunan, 1988; and White, 1988.
12 Mirandola is a small village, not far from Modena.
13 This is in line with the present state of primary teaching in Italy, where the number of male teachers is rather low.
14 For the purpose of the present study, however, only 77 out of the available 98 descriptors have been taken into account. In fact, the 21 descriptors that are meant to assess the respondents' awareness as FL teachers have not been referred to, since none of the generalist teachers involved had ever taught English before attending the training course.
15 For further information on the PLEASE website, see Poppi, Low and Bondi (2003); Poppi, Low and Bondi (2005).
16 The Preliminary English Test (PET) is one of the Cambridge ESOL certificates. The Certificate of English for Primary Teachers (CEPT) has been jointly developed by the Language Centres of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia and the University of Parma.
17 Twenty out of the forty hours devoted to the development of foreign-language, teaching-learning skills were to be administered via online resources.

 

 

APPENDIX 1

Self-assessment questionnaries

 

 

APPENDIX 2

Respondent's answers