Introduction

Public management faces an unprecedented set due to ongoing crises (^{OECD, 2023}). To address them, it is necessary to focus on the well-being of employees, who are the key to improving public services and providing timely responses in times of change (^{Pecino et al., 2019}; ^{Ye et al., 2021}).

Public management has been characterized by bureaucratic approaches (^{Bason & Austin, 2022}). In Spain, citizens associate bureaucracy with attributes such as slowness, formalism, and distant treatment (^{Arenilla, 2017}). This way of managing public administration leads to employees having specific job demands (^{Martínez-Díaz et al., 2021}), which can sometimes be contradictory (^{Røhnebæk & Breit, 2022}). In this context, the way demands and resources are managed in public management directly influences employees (^{Bakker & Demerouti, 2017}). Faced with this reality, it is crucial to consider the role of psychosocial well-being and the motivation of public employees (^{Bakker, 2015}).

Positive organizational psychology provides tools for human resources departments to focus on workers’ capabilities and well-being (^{van Zyl et al., 2024}). Thus, it offers comprehensive elements for understanding work relationships through the study of psychosocial resources such as supportive climate and self-efficacy (^{Luthans et al., 2008}), whose relationship can be influenced by variables such as job tenure (^{Larsson et al., 2012}). These resources can play a fundamental role at both individual and organizational levels, as they have the potential to foster work dedication (^{Salanova et al., 2019}).

This study aims to contribute to the advancement of research in this field and to add to empirical knowledge on the behavior of workers who make public management possible. To achieve this goal, the variables: supportive climate, self-efficacy, dedication, and job tenure are conceptually defined. Subsequently, the theory of job demands and resources is used as an explanatory framework for these psychological phenomena, facilitating the presentation of the research objective and hypotheses guiding this investigation.

Conceptual framework

Supportive climate refers to employees’ perception of the support they receive from colleagues, other departments, or supervisors, which contributes to their task success (^{Luthans et al., 2008}). A supportive organizational environment facilitates organizational change processes, mitigates exhaustion caused by psychosocial risks in the organization, and reduces negative effects on employees (^{Ferreira et al., 2018}; ^{Hayat & Afshari, 2020}; ^{Villavicencio-Ayub et al., 2022}). Supportive climate is key to dedication at work (^{Fajardo-Castro et al., 2024}). Furthermore, perceived social support within work teams can enhance psychological resources such as self-efficacy (^{Khan et al., 2022}; ^{Vilariño del Castillo & Lopez-Zafra, 2022}). In other words, self-efficacy is strengthened in a supportive climate (^{Purnama et al., 2021}).

Following this line of thought, self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capabilities to achieve a specific goal, utilizing cognitive, motivational, affective, and behavioral faculties (^{Benight & Bandura, 2004}). Thus, it is associated with confidence in facing challenging demands (^{Luthans & Youssef-Morgan, 2017}) and generating positive spirals (^{Mañas et al., 2020}). Previous research has presented self-efficacy as a mediating and moderating variable (^{Li et al., 2022}; ^{Neneh, 2022}; ^{Wu et al., 2022}; ^{Yao et al., 2021}). Self-efficacy predicts dedication in public employees (^{Williams et al., 2010}). Additionally, several studies have shown the relationship between self-efficacy and engagement (^{Mardiana & Wijono, 2023}; ^{Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2023}; ^{Zhao & Cao, 2023}).

It is worth noting that dedication refers to participation and a strong commitment to work, accompanied by enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, meaning, and challenge (^{Schaufeli, 2018}). Moreover, dedication allows the worker to experience a sense of transcendence (^{Salanova et al., 2019}). Dedication is positively related to supervisor support, optimism, vigor, absorption, and negatively associated with cynicism, job insecurity, emotional exhaustion, and professional inefficacy (^{Acuña-Hormazabal et al., 2021}; ^{Guidetti et al., 2022}). Furthermore, it has been observed that job tenure is associated with both lower (^{Carrillo, 2020}) and higher dedication (^{Ocampo-Álvarez et al., 2021}).

In line with the above, job tenure is defined as the time a person spends in a specific role (^{Ng & Feldman, 2013}). The reviewed studies demonstrate that higher job tenure is associated with stronger beliefs in self-efficacy (^{Larsson et al., 2012}; ^{Maffei et al., 2012}). Likewise, job tenure influences affective commitment, emotional exhaustion, and absenteeism among workers (^{Berón et al., 2021}; ^{Jaime, 2020}; ^{Vargas Salgado & Gómez Bull, 2021}).

Other studies present inconsistent findings on the relationship between job tenure and psychological variables. For example, longer job tenure is associated with greater emotional exhaustion (^{Caravaca-Sánchez et al., 2022}), poorer health, and lower levels of engagement (^{Talavera-Velasco et al., 2021}). In contrast, significant differences have been found in public service employees regarding burnout syndrome based on job tenure, with those having more than ten years of experience in their occupation reporting less burnout (^{Bringas et al., 2020}).

Job Demands-Resources Theory

The Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory provides a useful framework for understanding how working conditions affect employee well-being and performance in the context of public management. This theory is a solid and influential theoretical framework for understanding worker well-being, partly because of its flexibility and ability to integrate a wide range of job characteristics. This job design theory posits that organizational structure impacts both worker well-being and performance (^{Bakker, 2015}; ^{Bakker & Demerouti, 2024}).

The JD-R theory proposes that interactions in work contexts can generate well-being or distress in individuals, and these outcomes depend on the relationship between demands and resources (with this study focusing on resources). Demands refer to the physical, psychological, organizational, or social elements that require effort, while resources reduce job demands and facilitate goal achievement, and stimulate employee development. Therefore, this theory posits that the relationship between demands and resources leads to personal and organizational consequences. In the field of public management, this theory highlights the importance of providing sufficient labor resources to counteract high demands (^{Bakker, 2015}; ^{Bakker & Demerouti, 2024}).

Therefore, implementing management policies that align these demands and resources is key to fostering a healthier and more efficient working environment in the public sector. Thus, the relationship between work dedication (positive outcome), supportive climate (job resource), and self-efficacy (personal resource) is supported in this study by the JD-R theory (see Figure 1).

Although the evidence supports the role of self-efficacy in various work contexts, the results are inconsistent, and more research is needed to enhance our understanding, especially among public sector employees. For example, ^{Sloan (2014)} found that self-efficacy mitigates the consequences of emotional labor in public workers. In the same vein, ^{Quratulain et al., (2021)} emphasize the importance of continuing to study this variable in public administration employees, as the specificities of this sector may modify the expected behavior of self-efficacy (^{Rego et al., 2010}).

Source: own elaboration

Figure 1 Job Demands- Resources Theory 

Furthermore, the JD-R theory suggests that different contextual factors, including job tenure, can influence psychosocial variables. For a social variable such as supportive climate to affect work dedication, it may require the mediation of a personal resource like self-efficacy. In this sense, positive perceptions of a supportive climate can create a conducive environment for developing self-efficacy. As an illustration, if a worker makes a mistake but perceives a supportive climate, they will feel supported by their team even in the face of failure. This strategy allows them to maintain confidence in their abilities and, as a result, improve the quality of their tasks. Furthermore, the relationship between supportive climate and self-efficacy can be moderated by job tenure; having more time in the organization can strengthen supportive relationships, enhancing workers’ self-efficacy.

Based on the above, this study proposes a predictive model, specifically a moderated mediation model (see Figure 2) to examine the influence of the supportive climate on dedication through the mediation of self-efficacy and the moderating role of job tenure in Spanish public administration employees. Consequently, the following hypotheses are derived:

Source: own elaboration.

Figure 2 Predictive Research Model Source: own elaboration. 

In studying these relationships and identifying psychosocial factors that influence work dedication, relevant insights are provided for organizational management of public employees, contributing equally to the creation of a healthy organizational environment.

Method

Instruments

The FOCUS-93 questionnaire (First Organizational Climate/Culture Unified Search) was used to assess the supportive climate with items 1, 2, and 3 (e.g., interest and support are shown for colleagues’ personal problems) (^{Van Muijen & et al., 1999}). The responses were in a 7-point Likert format, ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 7 = Strongly Agree. The internal consistency of the scale was satisfactory (𝛼 = .920).

The PCQ-12 (Psychological Capital Questionnaire) was used to evaluate self-efficacy with items 1, 2, and 3 (e.g., I would feel confident if I had to present information to a group of colleagues) (^{Luthans et al., 2007}). All items had a Likert response format, ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 6 = Strongly Agree. The internal consistency of the scale was satisfactory ( = .829).

The UWES-9 questionnaire (Utrecht Work Engagement Scale) was utilized to assess the dedication with items 3, 4, and 7 (e.g., my work inspires me) (^{Schaufeli et al., 2002}). The responses were in a 7-point Likert format, ranging from 0 = Never/Not at all to 6 = Always/Every day. In this study, the reliability was satisfactory (𝛼 = .933)..

In addition, the researchers constructed an adhoc demographic and work data sheet, whichincluded questions about job tenure, level ofeducation, age, contract type, and type ofposition.

Table 1 Frequency and percentages of sociodemographic and work-related variables 

Source: own elaboration

In addition, the researchers constructed an ad hoc demographic and work data sheet, which included questions about job tenure, level of education, age, contract type, and type of position.

Results

Descriptive statistics and linear correlation between the independent variable (supportive climate) and the dependent variables (self-efficacy and dedication) are presented in Table 2. The supportive climate showed a statistically significant and positive relationship with dedication (p = .001), while self-efficacy and dedication correlated directly and significantly (p = .013). However, supportive climate did not show a statistically significant correlation with self-efficacy (p =.515).

Table 2 Correlation between supportive climate, self-efficacy, and dedication  

Note: Self-efficacy; 3 = Dedication. *p < .05, **p < .01.

Table 3 and Figure 3 present the moderated mediation model analyses, to analyze whether the relationship between supportive climate (X) and dedication (Y) is mediated by self-efficacy (M) and whether this mediation is moderated by the level of job tenure (W). Supportive climate has a significant and negative effect on self-efficacy (𝛽 = .281), p= .026). Job tenure alone does not have a significant impact on self-efficacy (𝛽 = .263), p = .083). However, adding the effects of supportive climate and job tenure yields a positive and significant effect on self-efficacy (𝛽 = .071), p = .008).

The second model shows that the supportive climate is a significant predictor (ß = .537), p= .000) for the criterion variable (dedication); similarly, self-efficacy predicted dedication (ß = .189), p = .013). The moderated mediation analysis indicated that the effect of the supportive climate on the participants’ self-efficacy was dependent on their tenure in the organization (interaction coefficient: supportive climate x tenure).

The second model shows that the supportive climate is a significant predictor (ß = .537, p= .000) for the criterion variable (dedication); similarly, self-efficacy predicted dedication (ß = .189, p = .013). The moderated mediation analysis indicated that the effect of the supportive climate on the participants’ self-efficacy was dependent on their tenure in the organization (interaction coefficient: supportive climate x tenure).

In turn, Table 4 shows that the conditional indirect effect of supportive climate on dedication, through job tenure, is negative and not significant for the low level (𝛽 = .013, SE =. 011, 95% CI= [-.038, .006]); for the medium level of job tenure the effect is positive, but only marginally significant (𝛽 = .013, SE = .009, 95% CI = [-.000, .036]).

However, when the job tenure level is high, the effect is positive and significant (𝛽 = .027, SE = .014, 95% CI= [.003, .060]). Therefore, the strength of the indirect effect depends significantly on the level of job tenure. As job tenure increases, the mediating effect of self-efficacy in the relationship between supportive climate and dedication becomes significantly stronger.

Now, Table 5 and Figure 4 present an analysis using the Johnson-Neyman technique. The indirect effect of supportive climate on dedication through self-efficacy at different levels of job tenure is depicted. The results show two significant regions (job tenure scores ranging from 1.000 to 1.263 and from 5.148 to 6.000). In the first region the effect is negative, while in the second region, the effect is positive.

Discussion

This research aims to analyze the influence of supportive climate on dedication through the mediation of self-efficacy and the moderating role of job tenure in Spanish public administration employees. To our knowledge, this is the first study to address these relationships within the framework of Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) theory. The results reveal that the supportive climate significantly influences dedication through the mediating effect of self-efficacy, which is moderated by tenure in the organization. In other words, the greater the tenure, the better the relationship between supportive climate and self-efficacy.

Table 3 Moderated mediation analysis 

Note: SE = Standard Error; p = p-value; BC CI = Bias-Corrected Confidence Interval; 𝑅² = Coefficient of Determination; F = F-statistic.

Source: own elaboration.

Note: *p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001. Source: own elaboration.

Figure 3 Moderated mediation model 

Table 4 Conditional indirect effect of supportive climate (X) on dedication (Y) through self-efficacy as a function of job tenure (W) 

^NoteSE = Standard Error; BC CI = Bias-Corrected Confidence Interval.

Source: own elaboration

Table 5 Conditional effect of focal predictor at values of the moderator 

^Note:SE = Standard Error; T = T-statistic; p = p-value; BC CI = Bias-Corrected Confidence Interval.

Source: own elaboration.

Source: own elaboration.

Figure 4 Conditional indirect effect of supportive climate (X) on dedication (Y) through selfefficacy as a function of job tenure (W) 

This finding suggests that in public employees engaged in administrative tasks at a Spanish university, the relationship between supportive climate and self-efficacy strengthen over time and with the accumulation of work experience. The above indicates that tenure in the organization is a positive moderating factor. Consequently, both self-efficacy and tenure in the organization serve as protective resources for public employees. On the one hand, self-efficacy allows them to maintain a solid belief in their abilities, which positively influences their dedication to their work. On the other hand, tenure in the organization enhances the relationship between supportive climate and self-efficacy, further strengthening dedication.

Now, the findings lead to rejection of H1: the supportive climate has a statistically positive relationship with self-efficacy among public employees. It is essential to discuss the direction of this relationship, as it is contrary to what was expected; that is, it is negative. Therefore, support climate negatively predicts self-efficacy. This means that as public employees perceive more support from their work environment, their self-efficacy decreases. This opposes what has been found in other studies (^{Khan et al., 2022}; ^{Kwon, 2018}; ^{Vilariño del Castillo & Lopez-Zafra, 2022}).

It is important to consider that the negative direction in this relationship could be due to the peculiarities of interactions, conditions, and work demands in public management (^{Martínez-Díaz et al., 2021}). In this sense, ^{Røhnebæk & Breit (2022)} argue that public service organizations operate in scenarios that are complex and paradoxical. Indeed, finding that as support increases, the perception of capability decreases represents a paradox among Spanish public administration workers. For instance, interim contracts or short-term hiring could create a competitive workplace among coworkers for greater job stability. These factors could help explain the inverse relationship between supportive climate and self-efficacy in this context.

On the other hand, H2 is supported by the research findings: self-efficacy has a statistically positive relationship with dedication, which coincides with a previous study conducted with public-sector workers (^{Williams et al., 2010}). This suggests that when public employees believe in their abilities, their work dedication increases. This finding highlights the importance of strengthening self-efficacy, which aligns with recommendations given by positive psychology for promoting engagement (^{Ouweneel et al., 2013}; ^{Salanova et al., 2019}).

Likewise, H3 is accepted: self-efficacy positively mediates the relationship between supportive climate and dedication among public employees. This is consistent with previous studies that highlight the mediating role of self-efficacy between antecedent and outcome variables (^{Bu et al., 2021}; ^{Wu et al., 2022}; ^{Yao et al., 2021}). Therefore, self-efficacy is a key resource that enhances the positive effects of supportive climate on work dedication.

Similarly, H4 is accepted: greater job tenure in the organization positively moderates the relationship between supportive climate and self-efficacy among public employees. As mentioned above, this study found that supportive climate negatively predicts self-efficacy. However, when job tenure moderates this relationship, it alters its dynamics; having more seniority in the organization turns the relationship between supportive climate and self-efficacy into a positive one. This finding suggests that a supportive climate positively impacts self-efficacy only among workers who have been in the organization longer. Following the above, ^{Leroy et al. (2007)} identified that seniority had a significant positive impact on autonomy support, which was mediated by self-efficacy.

When job tenure is introduced, the influence of supportive climate on self-efficacy becomes positive: the more support they receive, the more self-efficacious long-tenure employees perceive themselves to be. This implies that the more senior the worker, the more positively supportive climate predicts self-efficacy, while it has a negative impact when seniority is low. These results point toward recognizing greater job tenure as a factor that protects workers. Workers with little job seniority may be in the process of adaptation and learning in their job, which can generate greater insecurities about the tasks they perform compared to those workers who have been working in the organization for more years, implying greater familiarity with work practices, a stronger support network, and greater knowledge of the organizational climate and culture.

Our findings are consistent with the study of ^{Larsson et al. (2012)}, who found that organizational climate is associated with self-efficacy, while those with greater seniority perceive themselves as more self-efficacious. Therefore, job tenure should be a variable to consider when addressing engagement (^{OECD, 2023}), specifically dedication.

In conclusion, this study suggests that, although it is important, merely providing a supportive organizational climate is not sufficient to yield a positive impact on dedication. For this reason, it is important to recognize that self-efficacy plays a role in leveraging or enhancing dedication, particularly among workers with greater seniority.