ICT AND ELT

The link between technology and ELT has merged through the creation of well-known methods like CALL (Computer-Assisted Language Learning), TELL (Technology Enhanced Language Learning), BALL (Blog Assisted Language Learning), and MALL (Mobile Assisted Language Learning) CALL is defined by ^{Levy (1996)}, as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning" (p.1). A proof of the incidence of technology in ELT is the growing number of publications that relate language learning to the use of technology. ^{Fernandes (2017)} states that Internet and the Web 2.0 technologies makes it possible for teachers to provide students with flexible alternatives to foster interaction and develop language skills, especially speaking, without worrying about embarrassing classroom situations.

TELL was born as an alternative to CALL. According to ^{Wulandari and Almendo (2022)}, TELL refers to the use of technological tools, such as Apps, hardware, software, and the internet as supplements to language learning. For example, using an electronic dictionary to look for an unknown word in a text. Some of the differences between CALL and TELL are that, while in the first one, only desk- based computers are used for learning; in the second one, technology is available in remote form at any time through different gadgets.

Ward (2004, cited by ^{Fernandes, 2017}) denominated BALL as any teaching and learning activities that involves the use of blogs as a computer-mediated platform where interactions, both, within and beyond the classroom, among members of the learning community, take place through language activities that are observable. That means that interactions are not only between the learner and the computer, but they involve other members of the community.

For ^{Shi et al. (2017)}, MALL is the result of the rapid development of network infrastructure, mobile network speed, and usage of 3G/4G network. It has to do with the use of mobile Apps for language acquisition using smartphones, pads or tablets, and with the guidance of a tutor. As ^{Cakmak (2019)} states, mobility refers to being connected anytime and anywhere, which implies that learners must fulfill technical and contextual requirements. The content that is delivered in the Apps for language learning must be short and supported with appropriate media types. Some of the common research in MALL involves the use of Duolingo, Instagram, and WeChat Instant Messaging.

Nevertheless, the problem seems not to be the existence of the methods, but teachers' capacity and disposition to adapt and adopt this technology to language teaching didactics, the rapid changes in technology generation that demands constant updates through the design and implementation of programs that prepare teachers for each new challenge, and the emphasis made in the training programs to the technological component (^{Cabero, 2014}; ^{Cabero & Marín, 2014}; Guerra, González, & García, 2010; ^{Gutiérrez, 2014}; ^{Hechter & Vermette, 2013}; cited by ^{Cabero & Barroso, 2016}).

This tendency to focus training programs on technological knowledge assumes that educators already manage the content and the pedagogical knowledge; however, the latter becomes an obstacle when teachers attempt to implement the same didactical strategies they use in the physical classroom to a virtual learning classroom. The SAMR Model (^{Puentedura, 2014}), although not originally created for ELT, elucidates the process of changing traditional classrooms by introducing digital tools. The four stages in the adoption of technology established by this method help understanding the possible didactical adjustments a teacher is required to make when adopting technology. For instance, introducing changes to the traditional pen and paper activity called "Find Someone Who" enables students not only to ask questions to their classmates, but takes them to use WhatsApp to interact with students worldwide by voice or text messages according to the communicative skills the English teachers intend them to practice. Nonetheless, the SAMR Model does not specify methodological procedures when training teachers for these transitions.

DIGITAL COMPETENCE OR DIGITAL SKILLS

To understand what DC and TDC are, it is necessary to locate the concepts in their theoretical framework. Both concepts, along with Mediatic Competence, belong to a most ample one, which is Information Literacy (IL). For ^{Horton (2008)}, IL is a means to "empower people in all walks of life to seek, evaluate, use and create information effectively to achieve their personal, social, occupational and educational goals" (p.5) Among these capacities to deal with information, we find DC, or Digital Skills. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2018) defines them as a range of abilities to use digital devices, communication applications, and networks to access and manage information. In this way, TDC has to do, strictly, with all those skills, attitudes, and knowledge required for teachers in a digital world (Cabero-Almenara et al., 2017; Marqués, 2014, cited in ^{Cabero-Almenara & Palacios-Rodríguez, 2020}).

The European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators (DigCompEdu) assumes that educators are the role models of DC, since they need to be professionally and personally equipped with competences that are transferred to students in a form of critical and creative use of technologies. This framework comprises six areas expressed in 22 competences (^{Redecker, 2017}).

After exploring and defining the relations between the concepts, the question that remains is: What types of models have been designed to develop TDC in the field of Language Teaching?

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The expertise in the management of digital resources has been gained mostly by teachers' initiative or need, as it has been demonstrated in the emergency remote teaching during pandemic times.

There is a need to develop PMs or designs that, not only allow for the integration of the three types of knowledge proposed by three TPACK Model, but models that emphasize the pedagogical component through structured didactical procedures that establish clear learning sequences, use of resources, interactions of learning actors, and effects on the learning communities. That is the reason why these two questions emerge:

RQ1. Are there any pedagogical or methodological models for training English teachers in the incorporation of ICT to ELT? If so, what types of pedagogical or methodological models have been created?

RQ2. What types of models have been designed to develop TDC in the field of Language Teaching?

The results of this systematic review will allow us to confirm if it is valid to formulate a research problem that intends to determine the effects of a pedagogical model in TDC that incorporate digital tools to ELT.

SAMPLES

Considering that the aim of the current systematic revision is to identify the existence of pedagogical or methodological models for training English teachers in the incorporation of ICT to ELT, and the types of models designed on TDC in the field of LT, definitions of the corpus of study sought to identify scientific articles, revised by peers, and indexed in high qualified data bases. Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus were accessed by using the following entry words: "Pedagogical OR Didactical Models" "English Language Teaching or ELT" and "Teachers' Digital Competence" The raw results were organized by using Biblioshiny Software from Bibliometrics and guided by the Prisma Protocol. (See figure 1 PRISMA Flowchart). Most of the articles (2,900) from the raw results were discarded because the models that they describe belong to other knowledge areas different from language teaching, or teaching in general, or technology education, or because they did not describe a pedagogical model or learning design.

The scientific publications (WOS: 25 and Scopus: 23) were chosen taking into account these criteria:

Thematic: Studies focused on describing or designing models for the incorporation of ICT to ELT in teaching training programs and/or for the development of TDC

Impact: Studies in the form of articles published in high impact journals

Area of knowledge: Education Educational Research, Education Scientific Disciplines

Publication Dates: Studies published between 2016 and July 2022.

Languages: Spanish and English

Source: author's own elaboration using Prisma Flow Chart.

Figure 2 Selected Articles in WOS and Scopus PRISMA Flowchart 

ANALYSIS CRITERIA

Once the searches were refined by applying the described criteria, the results were exported from Biblioshiny to Excel and organized according to the following criteria: title, country, author, key ideas, and classification, as shown in Tables 1 and 2. The classification of articles was conducted considering the two research questions and the purpose of the models described within the articles. Group 1 includes models for the incorporation of technology to education in general, group 2 are models to develop innovation and creativity using technology, group 3 are models to find out acceptance of motivation towards the use of technology, group 4 are models related to incorporation of technology to ELT, and group 5 are models for the development of TDC.

GENERAL ANALYSIS

The analysis of the corpus shows interesting results. The main information extracted from the corpus of documents is presented in Table 3.

Table 3 Main Information Data 

Source: author's own elaboration using Bibliometrix.

With regards to country production over time (figure 2), the analysis from WOS shows that Spain, Malaysia, and China are the countries that produce most of the articles related to the design of pedagogical proposals to train teachers in ICT use. Spain maintains an average of 8 articles from 2018 to 2022. There is not a marked tendency of specific authors that write about this theme. Scopus' results demonstrate that Spain keeps an outstanding production, but Kazakhstan increased this rate in the last two years.

Source: own elaboration using Bibliometrix.

Figure 3 Country Production Over Time 

ANALYSIS OF PEDAGOGICAL MODELS

For Research question 1, the articles were classified in four groups, and for research question 2, into one group, as illustrated in Table 2. Most of the articles that intend to design PM are related to pedagogy in general (56,25 %). There are only 6 proposals (12,5 %) of PM that train English teachers in the use of technology.

The following analysis includes articles from the selected corpus of 48 articles that clearly describe a Pedagogical Architecture (Strategies, Techniques, Sequences of Learning, Resources, Procedures), and that may contribute to the consolidation of a didactical design to train English teachers in the use of digital tools.

Some of the models to highlight from the first group are the IDDIRR Design Model (Introduce, Demonstrate, Develop, Implement, Revise and Reflect), TPCD (Technological pedagogical content design), and the SMCKI Model (The Spiral Model of Collaborative Knowledge Improvement).

^{Lee and James (2018)} propose the IDDIRR Design Model, which integrates T-PACK and PLC (Professional Learning Community) in 6 steps that define the role of the trainer and the role of students during the process.

In the same track, the TPCD Model, suggested by ^{Hosseini et al. (2021)}, shed light on the incorporation of technology to pedagogy and of pedagogy to technology. The authors' intention is this former idea in the sense of creating a framework for using the model for designing a website. While the TPACK model seeks to integrate technology into pedagogy and content, TPCD proposes to integrate pedagogy into content and technology in educational and noneducational platforms. Hosseini's model exhibits the same constraints that the TPACK model: it is a general guide that does not elucidate concrete didactical strategies.

The SMCKI Model is a five-phase pedagogical model to support the collaborative learning of a networked classroom. It focuses on democratic knowledge, sharing as well as the individual, group, and class level knowledge improvement processes. As can be seen this model follows principles of the CHAT Theory of Vygotsky (^{Yamagata-Lynch, 2010}) and Constructivism. It may be beneficial in the sense that true scaffolding processes are involved when the students move in inter-intra- psychological procedures.

From the second group, two articles introduce models that intend to develop innovation and creativity. ^{Songkram and Chootongchai (2020)} examine the consistency of a causal model of innovation based on the SECI Model in under-graduate students in 12 universities in Thailand. The authors believe that development of creativity in students is fostered by going from socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization of knowledge. The SECI model is founded on 4 pedagogies, brainstorming technique, inquiry-based learning, cooperative learning, and project-based learning. The SECI Model creates awareness on the importance of knowledge assimilation from individual to group processing, from explicit to tacit knowledge. This becomes relevant at the moment of defining learning sequences in a didactical procedure.

^{Agélii et al. (2019)} present a write-to-learn method as an example on how innovation is disseminated, communicated, and adopted by a community. They express supporting ideas for the integration of ICT to clear pedagogical objectives. The success in the adoption of second-order change innovation depends on motivation, skill, positive learning, organization conditions, infrastructure, and culture. A clear methodology with specific procedures and techniques is not described.

In the third group, three models are concerned with designs to determine the acceptance of technology used for educational aims. ^{Cabero-Almenara et al. (2018)} apply the TAM Model (Technology Acceptance Model), which was initially developed by ^{Davis (1989)}, to measure the degree of acceptance and satisfaction of a group of teachers from Universidad de República Dominicana. The model considers two factors that influence an individual's intention to use new technology: perceived ease of use, and perceived usefulness. In the same token, ^{Shelton (2018)} used an ecological model of university faculty members' knowledge and beliefs on technology. This model considers contexts that influence university faculty members' thinking about technology uses. The contexts in the model are society and culture, higher education sectors, institutional context, department context, and the self. A Didactical proposal in TDC development should tackle drawbacks dealing with teachers' beliefs and contextual issues that may affect its implementation.

The ^{De Brabander and Glastra (2021)} Unified Model of Task-Specific Motivation (UMTM) integrates several motivation theories to provide a framework of constructs that are essentially needed to describe the motivation qualitatively and quantitatively for a course of acting at a specific time. It is used by the authors to explore the readiness of teachers to learn about ICT use. Finally, Tabatabaee et al. (2018) design and validate a model to determine students' CDP factors contributing to EFL teachers' success. Although it is a model applied to language students, it is not committed to developing language skills, but DC.

From the fourth group, the models that integrate technology to ELT, three of them are addressed to be used with students, and two are not models, but an initiative to join existing theories to implement a new mode of using technology for ELT. Only one of the articles is devoted to developing technological awareness in teachers (^{Yeh & Tseng, 2019}). The authors do not intend to create a model, but to describe how the integration of the ADDIE Model with teachers' lesson design affects their CALL professional knowledge.

^{Drugova et al. (2021)} describe a platform that integrates ^{Mishra and Koehler (2006)} and ^{Puentedura (2014)} SAMR model for analyzing the process of educational technology integration. ^{Vázquez-Cano et al. (2016)} use discourse analysis to find out the effectiveness of PLE -Personal Learning Environments- and OER -Open Educational Resources- in affecting DC, fostering content creation and long-life learning skills. They see in Blogs' design and implementation a unique opportunity for the development of PLEs. PLEs seems to be a valuable theoretical background to develop true scaffolding learning as it was proposed by the SMCKI Model. ^{Attwell (2010}, cited by ^{Vasquez-Cano et al, 2016}) define PLEs as "the spaces in which people interact and communicate and whose ultimate result is learning and the development of collective know-how" (p. 65). The use of blogs is seen by the authors as a unique opportunity to develop PLEs; however, PLEs are conceived as a collection of digital tools selected for learning, reflecting, and collaborating with others. This is precisely what becomes interesting in this proposal, since, for ELT, it would be very useful to establish a taxonomy of learning resources organized for the development of language skills and sorting out suggested actions for the construction of learning outcome statements and corresponding suggested activities.

One of the most interesting proposals in terms of its theoretical foundation and the response to learning in the 21^st Century is the SOSE Model proposed by ^{Salem (2019)}. It is a new web-based model that comprises three main stages: preparation, data refinement, and cooperation and publishing. It can be defined as an internet-based environment in which students investigate a topic, and then try to answer some set questions or solve a problem in collaboration with their peers. Pupils are actively involved in their own learning, take risks, learn from their errors, and assume responsibility for their own learning. Another important point related with SOSE is that its main components cope with the requirements for developing hard skills (i.e., cognitive skills), and soft skills (i.e. higher order thinking skills and twenty-first Century Skills), in addition to its positive impact on developing academic achievement and performance.

^{Wu's (2018)} article introduces the idea of "ecological teaching model" and "internet plus'! Internet plus refers to the in-depth interaction of internet innovation with various economic and social fields to promote technology advance. It seems to be a policy in China. The ecological Teaching Model is completely different from traditional teaching, and uses various information tools, such as multimedia technology, network technology, and speech recognition technology. It focuses on autonomous learning, and it cultivates students' storage ability, multimedia skills, emotional ethics, collaborative learning ability, and self-learning ability.

Finally, three models intend to develop TDC. Two of them are addressed to develop DC in education in general and one of them to basic education.

The Active teacher training Model (ATM) projected by ^{Rodrigues (2020)} is a cross-curricular method of training that sought to integrate digital technologies in teacher education. It adopts collaborative work, is supported by socio-constructivist approach, and combines a face-to-face component and autonomous work. The author says that ATM can be used by students and teachers in any discipline; however, there are areas of knowledge, like language teaching, that demand PMs that respond to particularities, like the specific integration of web tools to develop language skills and intercultural aspects.

^{Zimmer and Matthews (2022)} wanted to test the efficacy of a virtual coaching model of professional development to increase teachers' digital learning competencies, based on a previous model conceived by ^{Wilson and Alaniz (2015)}. This model presents cyclical moments like establishing the need, creating partnerships, targeting differentiated projects, assessing the progress, and reflecting on the integration.

The Model of Holistic Competence for the Digital Word (^{Esteve et al., 2018}) is addressed to basic education teachers, and intends to surpass the definition of Digital Teacher Competence by assuming the concept beyond an instrumental vision of technology. With regards to TDC, the authors say that "educators need to have the ability of using ICT to enrich classical didactic models that respond to students learning needs" (p. 108). They also insist on the idea of using Design-based Research (DBR) or Educational Design Research (EDR) to assume research as a teaching practice.

This model adds new components that none of the previously mentioned models explicitly include: the use of technology for expanding family relations, students' background, and the social commitment perspective. This remarkable relation with the community gives sense to the use of technology to foster local values and impact local communities, which has been a claim of the Pedagogy of the Oppressed (^{Freire, 1970}), ELT post-method theory (^{Kumaravadivelu, 1994}), and Community-based Pedagogies (^{Sharkey, 2012}).