<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0120-0488</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista Colombiana de Entomología]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Rev. Colomb. Entomol.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0120-0488</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Sociedad Colombiana de Entomología]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0120-04882010000200001</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Control microbiano de la palomilla de la papa Phthorimaea operculella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Microbial Control of the Potato Tuber Moth Phthorimaea operculella (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[LACEY]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[LAWRENCE A]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[KROSCHEL]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[JÜRGEN]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[ARTHURS]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[STEVEN P]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A03"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[DE LA ROSA]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[FRANCISCO]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A04"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Agricultural Research Laboratory  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Centro Internacional de la Papa  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Lima ]]></addr-line>
<country>Perú</country>
</aff>
<aff id="A03">
<institution><![CDATA[,University of Florida  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Apopka ]]></addr-line>
<country>Florida</country>
</aff>
<aff id="A04">
<institution><![CDATA[,Agricultural Research Laboratory  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2010</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2010</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>181</fpage>
<lpage>189</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0120-04882010000200001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0120-04882010000200001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0120-04882010000200001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[La ocurrencia natural de patógenos específicos y biopesticidas aplicados en forma inundativa puede contribuir significativamente al control de la palomilla de la papa, Phthorimaea operculella. La mayoría de las investigaciones y aplicaciones realizadas han usado para el control de P. operculella una especie de granulovirus y la bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). El granulovirus de P. operculella (PhopGV) tiene el potencial de jugar un importante papel en el manejo integrado de dicha plaga tanto en tubérculos almacenados como en el cultivo en condiciones de campo. Simultáneamente, Bt ha sido usado exitosamente contra infestaciones de P. operculella en el campo y en los tubérculos almacenados. PhopGV y Bt son seguros para las personas que hacen las aplicaciones y en los productos alimenticios; además, no afectan a los insectos benéficos y a otros organismos no blanco. Otros insecticidas naturales son el hongo biofumigante Muscodor albus, extractos botánicos, feromonas sexuales y métodos físicos para el manejo de P. operculella en tubérculos almacenados. La implementación de los biospesticidas dependerá en última instancia de una mayor conciencia de sus atributos por parte de los productores y del público, quienes serán los principales impulsores para su uso y comercialización.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[The natural occurrence of specific pathogens and biopesticides applied in an inundative fashion can contribute significantly to control of the potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella. Most of the research conducted and practices used for control of P. operculella use one species of granulovirus and the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The P. operculella granulovirus (PhopGV) has the potential to play a significant role in the integrated management of the pest in stored tubers as well as in field crops. At the same time, Bt has been used successfully against P. operculella infestations in the field and in stored tubers. PhopGV and Bt are safe for application personnel and for the food products; in addition, they do not affect beneficial insects and other nontarget organisms. Other natural insecticides are the biofumigant fungus Muscodor albus, botanicals, sex pheromones and physical measures for P. operculella control in stored tubers. The implementation of biopesticides will ultimately depend on an increased awareness of their attributes by growers and the public, who will be the main drivers for their use and commercialization.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Bacillus thuringiensis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Virus de la granulosis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Nematodos entomopatógenos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Steinernema]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Heterorhabditis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Hongos entomopatógenos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Metarhizium anisopliae]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Beauveria bassiana]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Muscodor albus]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Bacillus thuringiensis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Granulovirus]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Entomopathogenic nematodes]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Steinernema]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Heterorhabditis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Entomopathogenic fungi]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Metarhizium anisopliae]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Beauveria bassiana]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Muscodor albus]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <font face="Verdana" size="2">     <p align="right"><b>Art&iacute;culo de revisi&oacute;n</b></p> </font>     <p align="center"><font size="4" face="Verdana"><b>Control microbiano de la palomilla de la papa <i>Phthorimaea operculella</i> (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>  Microbial Control of the Potato Tuber Moth <i>Phthorimaea operculella</i> (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana" size="2">     <p align="center">&nbsp;</p>     <p align="left"><b>LAWRENCE A. LACEY<sup>1</sup>, J&Uuml;RGEN KROSCHEL<sup>2</sup>, STEVEN P. ARTHURS<sup>3</sup> y FRANCISCO DE LA ROSA<sup>4</sup></b></p>     <p align="left">  <sup>1</sup> Ph. D., Yakima Agricultural Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 5230 Konnowac Pass Road, Wapato, Wa. 98951 USA. <a href="mailto:lerry.lacey@ars.usda.gov">lerry.lacey@ars.usda.gov</a> Corresponding   author. </p>     <p align="left"><sup>2</sup> Ph. D., Centro Internacional de la Papa, Apartado 1558, Lima 12, Per&uacute;. </p>     <p align="left"><sup>3</sup> Ph. D., University of Florida, IFAS, Mid-Florida Research    and Education Center, Apopka, Florida. </p>     <p align="left"><sup>4</sup> Ing. Agr&oacute;mono, Yakima Agricultural Research Laboratory, USDA-ARS, 5230 Konnowac Pass Road, Wapato, Wa.   98951 USA.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="left">Recibido: 22-jun-2010 &bull; Aceptado: 14-ago-2010</p> <hr /> </font>     <p><font size="2" face="Verdana"><b><font size="3">Resumen:</font></b> La ocurrencia natural de pat&oacute;genos espec&iacute;ficos y biopesticidas aplicados en forma inundativa puede contribuir   significativamente al control de la palomilla de la papa, <i>Phthorimaea operculella</i>. La mayor&iacute;a de las investigaciones y   aplicaciones realizadas han usado para el control de <i>P. operculella</i> una especie de granulovirus y la bacteria <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (<i>Bt</i>). El granulovirus de <i>P. operculella</i> (PhopGV) tiene el potencial de jugar un importante papel en   el manejo integrado de dicha plaga tanto en tub&eacute;rculos almacenados como en el cultivo en condiciones de campo.   Simult&aacute;neamente, <i>Bt</i> ha sido usado exitosamente contra infestaciones de <i>P. operculella</i> en el campo y en los tub&eacute;rculos   almacenados. PhopGV y <i>Bt</i> son seguros para las personas que hacen las aplicaciones y en los productos alimenticios;   adem&aacute;s, no afectan a los insectos ben&eacute;ficos y a otros organismos no blanco. Otros insecticidas naturales son el hongo   biofumigante <i>Muscodor albus</i>, extractos bot&aacute;nicos, feromonas sexuales y m&eacute;todos f&iacute;sicos para el manejo de <i>P. operculella</i> en tub&eacute;rculos almacenados. La implementaci&oacute;n de los biospesticidas depender&aacute; en &uacute;ltima instancia de una   mayor conciencia de sus atributos por parte de los productores y del p&uacute;blico, quienes ser&aacute;n los principales impulsores para su uso y comercializaci&oacute;n.</font></p>     <p> <font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>Palabras clave: </b></font><font size="2" face="Verdana"><i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>. Virus de la granulosis. Nematodos entomopat&oacute;genos. <i>Steinernema</i>. <i>Heterorhabditis</i>. Hongos entomopat&oacute;genos. <i>Metarhizium anisopliae</i>. <i>Beauveria bassiana</i>. <i>Muscodor albus</i>.</font></p> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <hr /> </font>     <p><font size="2" face="Verdana"><b> <font size="3">Abstract: </font></b>The natural occurrence of specific pathogens and biopesticides applied in an inundative fashion can contribute   significantly to control of the potato tuber moth, <i>Phthorimaea operculella</i>. Most of the research conducted and practices   used for control of <i>P. operculella</i> use one species of granulovirus and the bacterium <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> (<i>Bt</i>). The   <i>P. operculella</i> granulovirus (PhopGV) has the potential to play a significant role in the integrated management of the   pest in stored tubers as well as in field crops. At the same time, <i>Bt</i> has been used successfully against <i>P. operculella</i>   infestations in the field and in stored tubers. PhopGV and <i>Bt</i> are safe for application personnel and for the food products;   in addition, they do not affect beneficial insects and other nontarget organisms. Other natural insecticides are the   biofumigant fungus <i>Muscodor albus</i>, botanicals, sex pheromones and physical measures for <i>P. operculella</i> control in   stored tubers. The implementation of biopesticides will ultimately depend on an increased awareness of their attributes   by growers and the public, who will be the main drivers for their use and commercialization.</font></p>     <p><font size="2" face="Verdana"><b> <font size="3">Keywords: </font></b><i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i>. Granulovirus. Entomopathogenic nematodes. <i>Steinernema</i>. <i>Heterorhabditis</i>. Entomopathogenic   fungi. <i>Metarhizium anisopliae</i>. <i>Beauveria bassiana</i>. <i>Muscodor albus</i>. </font></p> <font face="Verdana" size="2"> <hr /> </font>     <p><font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>Introducci&oacute;n</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana" size="2">     <p>  La palomilla de la papa, <i>Phthorimaea operculella</i> (Zeller,   1873), es originaria de las regiones productoras de papa de la   Cordillera Andina en Am&eacute;rica del Sur, pero se ha propagado   a &aacute;reas m&aacute;s tropicales y subtropicales productoras de papa   (Sporleder <i>et al</i>. 2004; Sporleder y Kroschel 2008). La palomilla   est&aacute; establecida en el Noroeste del Pac&iacute;fico de los Estados   Unidos y ha provocado serias inquietudes por el da&ntilde;o   que causa al cultivo de la papa (Rondon <i>et al</i>. 2008; De Bano   <i>et al</i>. 2010). Alternativas para su control antes de la cosecha   incluyen el uso de varios insecticidas de amplio espectro   (Mansour 1984; Bennett <i>et al</i>. 1999; Schreiber y Jensen   2005). Sin embargo, el intervalo de seguridad precosecha de   muchos insecticidas qu&iacute;micos no permite el tratamiento de la   papa justo antes de la cosecha y consumo.</p>     <p>  Se han reportado varios enemigos naturales de <i>P. operculella</i>,   incluyendo insectos parasitoides y predadores (Briese   1981; Horne 1990; Kroschel y Koch 1994; Kroschel 1995; Herman 2008a, 2008b; Horne y Page 2008) y pat&oacute;genos   (Kroschel y Lacey 2008; Lacey y Kroschel 2009). La ocurrencia   natural y aplicaciones inundativas de entomopat&oacute;genos   (biopesticidas) pueden contribuir significativamente   al control de <i>P. operculella</i> como una estrategia de manejo integrado de plagas (MIP).</p>     <p>  Se han desarrollado diversos plaguicidas microbiales (Lacey   <i>et. al</i>. 2001a) y algunos de ellos se utilizan para el control   de algunos insectos plaga de la papa, incluyendo <i>P. operculella</i>   (Radcliffe 1982; von Arx <i>et al</i>. 1987; Hamilton y Macdonald   1990; Zehnder <i>et al</i>. 1994; Cloutier <i>et al</i>. 1995; Kroschel   <i>et al</i>. 1996a, b; Zeddam <i>et al</i>. 2003; Wraight y Ramos 2005;   Kroschel y Lacey 2008; Lacey <i>et al</i>. 2009; Wraight <i>et al</i>.   2009). Los insecticidas microbiales no requieren intervalos   de seguridad precosecha, son inocuos para los agricultores   y consumidores, y no afectan a organismos no espec&iacute;ficos   como los insectos ben&eacute;ficos.</p>     <p>  En varios pa&iacute;ses alrededor del mundo se han hecho esfuerzos   sustanciales para desarrollar agentes microbiales para el control de <i>P. operculella</i>. En contraste, muy poco se ha   hecho a este respecto en los Estados Unidos. En esta revisi&oacute;n   se presenta informaci&oacute;n acerca del desarrollo y potencial de   virus, bacterias y nematodos para el control de <i>P. operculella</i>,   con &eacute;nfasis en las investigaciones desarrolladas en el estado   de Washington.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>  Virus</b></p>     <p>  En muchos de los pa&iacute;ses en donde se ha establecido la palomilla   de la papa se ha encontrado al virus de la granulosis   que ataca a <i>P. operculella</i> (PoGV). Su presencia se ha confirmado   en la regi&oacute;n Andina de Am&eacute;rica del Sur (Alcazar <i>et al</i>.   1991, 1992a; Sporleder 2003), &Aacute;frica (Broodryk y Pretorius   1974; Laarif <i>et al</i>. 2003), el Medio Oriente (Kroschel y Koch   1994), Asia (Zeddam <i>et al</i>. 1999; Setiawati <i>et al</i>. 1999), Australia   (Reed 1969; Briese y Mende 1981) y Am&eacute;rica del Norte   (Hunter <i>et al</i>. 1975). El nombre del virus se deriva de su   apariencia granular bajo microscopia electr&oacute;nica (<a href="img/revistas/rcen/v36n2/v36n2a01fig1.gif" target="_blank">Fig. 1A</a>).   Cada gr&aacute;nulo o part&iacute;cula del virus (OB) contiene una sola   barra viral (<a href="img/revistas/rcen/v36n2/v36n2a01fig1.gif" target="_blank">Fig. 1B</a>). Cuando las part&iacute;culas (OBs) son consumidas   por la larva de <i>P. operculella</i> &eacute;stas se disuelven en   el medio alcalino del tracto digestivo, liberando a las barras   virales que se unen y atraviesan las c&eacute;lulas epiteliales del   intestino medio. De ah&iacute;, invaden una variedad de c&eacute;lulas del   hu&eacute;sped y producen cientos de millones de part&iacute;culas virales   (OBs) por larva. Las c&eacute;lulas del cuerpo graso de la larva son   el sitio predominante de producci&oacute;n del virus. Por &uacute;ltimo, la   larva infectada muere y se convierte en una fuente de in&oacute;culo   para otras larvas. Reed (1971) y (Sporleder <i>et al</i>. 2007,   2008), reportaron los efectos de la concentraci&oacute;n del virus,   la temperatura y la edad de la larva en la progresi&oacute;n de la enfermedad   en <i>P. operculella</i>. La mayor&iacute;a de las larvas mueren   despu&eacute;s de 10 - 14 d&iacute;as de ingerir el virus y dosis muy altas   del virus PhopGV pueden causar la muerte por toxicosis en   48 horas.</p>     <p>  Sporleder (2003) evalu&oacute; la actividad de 14 asilamientos   geogr&aacute;ficos del PhopGV y encontr&oacute; un rango de actividad que   cubre varios &oacute;rdenes de magnitud. Vickers <i>et al</i>. (1991) analizaron   patrones de restricci&oacute;n de ADN y demostraron diferencias   gen&eacute;ticas menores entre ocho aislamientos de PhopGV de   diverso origen geogr&aacute;fico. Ellos descubrieron tres genotipos   que est&aacute;n estrechamente relacionados y el aislado peruano   pudo distinguirse f&aacute;cilmente de otros cinco provenientes de   otros insectos hospederos. Bioensayos de tres aislados de virus   de la granulosis PhopGV de Indonesia revelaron propiedades   biol&oacute;gicas similares (Zeddam <i>et al</i>. 1999). Kroschel <i>et al</i>. (1996a) reportaron semejanza entre un aislado de Yemen   y uno de Per&uacute;. En contraste, L&eacute;ry <i>et al</i>. (1998) demostr&oacute; considerables   diferencias gen&eacute;ticas entre un aislado de T&uacute;nez y   aislados de virus granular PhopGV de otras regiones.</p>     <p>  Como muchos virus granulares, PhopGV tiene un reducido   rango de hospederos. Solamente infecta a <i>P. operculella</i>   y algunas otras especies de la misma familia (Gelechiidae).   Por ejemplo, la palomilla de la papa de Guatemala, <i>Tecia solanivora</i>, (Povolny 1930), es susceptible a PhopGV, pero   menos que <i>P. operculella</i> (Zeddam <i>et al</i>. 2003; Villamizar <i>et al</i>. 2005). Aunque se ha aislado al PhopGV de <i>Symmetrischema tangolias</i> (Gyen 1913) (&Aacute;ngeles y Alc&aacute;zar 1996), &eacute;ste   no parece afectar a dicha especie (J. Kroschel, com. pers.).   Pokharkar y Kurhade (1999) reportaron falta de infectividad   para otras once especies de lepid&oacute;pteros.</p>     <p>  En Australia y Yemen se ha documentado la incidencia   natural de PhopGV en poblaciones de <i>P. operculella</i> (Briese   1981; Kroschel y Koch 1994; Kroschel 1995) donde las   larvas estaban infectadas en bajos niveles. Kroschel y Koch   (1994) observaron que la mayor&iacute;a de la mortalidad de <i>P. operculella</i> en Yemen fue causada por parasitoides ichneum&oacute;nidos   y brac&oacute;nidos. Kroschel <i>et al</i>. (1996b) sugieren que   los parasitoides resultaron ligeramente inhibidos por la aplicaci&oacute;n   de 5 x 10<sup>13</sup> cuerpos de inclusi&oacute;n del virus PhopGV/ha,   pero no por la aplicaci&oacute;n del virus en una concentraci&oacute;n diez   veces menor. Las larvas de los parasitoides aparentemente   continuaron desarroll&aacute;ndose en las larvas infectadas de <i>P. operculella</i>. El hecho de que PhopGV normalmente infecte   larvas reci&eacute;n nacidas mientras que muchos parasitoides de <i>P. operculella</i> atacan huevos y larvas mayores, sugiere que puede   emplearse un control combinado. Los registros sobre la   incidencia natural del virus granular PhopGV en poblaciones   de <i>P. operculella</i> indican que los niveles del virus son muy   bajos para reducir el da&ntilde;o de la palomilla de la papa y que se   requieren aplicaciones inundativas (fumigar o asperjar) para proveer un control efectivo. Las evaluaciones en campo del   virus granular PhopGV para el control de <i>P. operculella</i> son   limitadas y los resultados variables. Reed (1971) y Reed y   Springett (1971) condujeron los primeros ensayos de campo   del virus de la granulosis PhopGV en Australia y encontraron   que una aplicaci&oacute;n temprana del virus (6275 larvas/ha) puede   lograr un control efectivo. Adem&aacute;s, ellos observaron que   el virus de la granulosis PhopGV se propaga f&aacute;cilmente en   &aacute;reas no tratadas.</p>     <p>  Reed (1971) concluy&oacute; que el virus alcanz&oacute; a las larvas   que minaban las hojas a trav&eacute;s de las estomas, y que el viento   y los p&aacute;jaros fueron responsables de diseminar el virus. Salah   y Aalbu (1992) probaron el virus en suspensi&oacute;n y en polvo   bajo condiciones de campo en T&uacute;nez. La infestaci&oacute;n de la   papa se redujo hasta en un 73% cuando se aplic&oacute; el virus   en la superficie del suelo en los cultivos de papa. Kurhade   y Pokharkar (1997) reportaron que dosis de PhopGV de 5,5   x 1011 cuerpos de inclusi&oacute;n/ha y Endosulfan al 0,035% proporcionaron   un control efectivo de <i>P. operculella</i> que resulta   en una infestaci&oacute;n de la papa 6,9% m&aacute;s baja comparada con otros tratamientos de insecticidas.</p>     <p>  Salah <i>et al</i>. (1994) pusieron a prueba una combinaci&oacute;n   de <i>Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner</i>, 1911, PhopGV y una doble   irrigaci&oacute;n para el control integrado de <i>P. operculella</i> en   pruebas de campo en T&uacute;nez. En algunos casos, el control   integrado result&oacute; ser m&aacute;s eficiente que los insecticidas convencionales.   Kroschel (1995) y Kroschel <i>et al</i>. (1996b) obtuvieron   un control significativo de <i>P. operculella</i> en papa con   aplicaciones de 5 x 10<sup>13</sup> cuerpos de oclusi&oacute;n/ha. Once d&iacute;as   despu&eacute;s del tratamiento se observaron los s&iacute;ntomas t&iacute;picos   como coloraci&oacute;n blanca lechosa y vitalidad reducida de las   larvas, y una mortalidad del 70% a los 19 d&iacute;as del tratamiento.   Finalmente el tratamiento viral caus&oacute; hasta un 82,5% de mortalidad de <i>P. operculella</i>.</p>     <p>  Estudios en el estado de Washington revelaron el potencial   de PhopGV en el Noroeste de Estados Unidos. El Laboratorio   de Investigaci&oacute;n Agr&iacute;cola de Yakima del Departamento de   Agricultura de Estados Unidos desarroll&oacute; y optimiz&oacute; m&eacute;todos   de producci&oacute;n de la palomilla <i>P. operculella</i> y del virus PhopGV.   Actualmente se producen alrededor de 10,000 huevecillos   y m&aacute;s de 1,500 pupas de <i>P. operculella</i> por semana. El   virus se produce en larvas de <i>P. operculella</i> reci&eacute;n emergidas   y expuestas en papas previamente tratadas con suspensiones   virales de aproximadamente 1.5 x 10<sup>8</sup> cuerpos de inclusi&oacute;n/   ml. Los huevecillos se inoculan con suspensiones con 1,5 x   10<sup>10</sup> cuerpos de inclusi&oacute;n/ml. El virus se recolecta de las larvas   infectadas que salen de las papas, aproximadamente 14 d&iacute;as despu&eacute;s.</p>     <p>  En pruebas de campo, aplicaciones semanales de PhopGVde   9,9 x 10<sup>12</sup> cuerpos de inclusi&oacute;n/ha no redujeron el   da&ntilde;o inicial (porcentaje de hojas minadas) en la primera generaci&oacute;n   de <i>P. operculella</i>, a pesar de que m&aacute;s del 90% de   larvas tratadas estaban infectadas con virus y no puparon. Sin   embargo, aplicaciones semanales de 9,9 x 10<sup>12</sup>/ha resultaron   en una reducci&oacute;n de 76,3% de hojas minadas y una reducci&oacute;n   de 96,3% de larvas de <i>P. operculella</i> en la segunda generaci&oacute;n   que es una dosis alta del virus. Una rotaci&oacute;n semanal   del PhopGV y <i>Bacillus thuringiensis</i> fue m&aacute;s efectiva que   las aplicaciones semanales de s&oacute;lo <i>Bt</i> 1,12 kg/ha con una reducci&oacute;n   de larvas de la segunda generaci&oacute;n del 97,1%. Una   dosis menor del virus de la granulosis PhopGV de 9,9 x 10<sup>11</sup>   cuerpos de inclusi&oacute;n/ha fue significativamente menos efectiva que las tasas m&aacute;s altas.</p>     <p>  Las aplicaciones de dosis de PhopGV que causaron m&aacute;s   del 95% de mortalidad en condiciones de campo, no son econ&oacute;micamente   factibles. Por ejemplo, Arthurs <i>et al</i>. (2008b)   reportaron un buen control por mayor tiempo de altas poblaciones   de <i>P. operculella</i> despu&eacute;s de varias aplicaciones de   PhopGVa la concentraci&oacute;n de 10<sup>13</sup> CO/ha. Las poblaciones   fueron reducidas entre 86-96% cuando se aplicaron sobre follajes   y 90 a 97% cuando se hicieron aplicaciones sobre los   tub&eacute;rculos depositados en cajas inmediatamente despu&eacute;s de cosechados.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>  La eficacia de la aplicaci&oacute;n no s&oacute;lo depende de la cepa   del virus, dosis y m&eacute;todo de aplicaci&oacute;n, sino que su efecto   puede verse reducido por la inactivaci&oacute;n del virus por los   rayos ultravioletas (UV) (Kroschel <i>et al</i>. 1996a; Sporleder   <i>et al</i>. 2001; Sporleder 2003; Arthurs <i>et al</i>. 2008b). Kroschel   <i>et al</i>. (1996a) investigaron la eficacia y persistencia en   campo de diferentes preparaciones del virus de la granulosis   PhopGV. Ellos calcularon una vida media del virus en papas   expuestas al sol de 1,3 d&iacute;as. Mortalidades de larvas en   primer estadio variaron de 43 - 49% cuando se alimentaron   de vegetaci&oacute;n colectada dos d&iacute;as despu&eacute;s del tratamiento.   Solamente del 19,4 al 25,8% de larvas murieron cuando se   alimentaron del follaje recogido a los ocho d&iacute;as despu&eacute;s de   la aplicaci&oacute;n del virus. Una variedad de coadyuvantes que ha   sido usado para proteger otros baculovirus de la inactivaci&oacute;n   de los rayos ultravioleta (UV) fueron revisados por Burges y Jones (1998).</p>     <p>  Sporleder (2003) investig&oacute; el uso de colorantes, abrillantadores   &oacute;pticos, antioxidantes, materiales derivados de     insectos hospederos y tipos de formulaci&oacute;n para protecci&oacute;n     del virus de la granulosis PhopGV de la inactivaci&oacute;n de los     rayos ultravioleta. El not&oacute; que el abrillantador &oacute;ptico Tinopal     y ciertos antioxidantes protegieron la infectividad de virus     irradiados. Sin embargo, se logr&oacute; mayor protecci&oacute;n contra     luz UV en las preparaciones de larvas infectadas molidas en     agua comparado con otras preparaciones (Kroschel y Koch 1996; Sporleder 2003; Chaparro <i>et al</i>. 2010).</p>     <p>  El virus de la granulosis PhopGV ha sido reportado por   varios investigadores como una muy buena protecci&oacute;n a papas   tratadas, especialmente en almacenes sin refrigeraci&oacute;n. &Eacute;xitos en el control de la palomilla de la papa usando el virus de la granulosis PhopGV han sido demostrados en pa&iacute;ses andinos como Per&uacute;, Ecuador, Bolivia y Colombia, de donde <i>P. operculella</i> y la papa se cree que son originarios (Alcazar <i>et al</i>. 1992b; CIP 1992; Zeddam <i>et al</i>. 2003). El virus, adem&aacute;s ha sido evaluado en papas almacenadas en varios pa&iacute;ses en el Medio Oriente, Norte de &Aacute;frica y Asia (Amonkar <i>et al</i>. 1979; Hamilton y MacDonald 1990; Islam <i>et al</i>. 1990; Das <i>et al</i>. 1992; Setiawati <i>et al</i>. 1999; Chandel y Chanla 2005; Chandel <i>et al</i>. 2008). Dado que el virus no est&aacute; expuesto a los rayos ultravioleta en almacenamiento, la protecci&oacute;n de las papas puede durar varios meses.</p>     <p>  Se estudi&oacute; la efectividad de una formulaci&oacute;n en polvo   seco del granulovirus, preparado mezclando 1 kg de talco en   un litro de agua con 20 larvas infectadas con el granulovirus,   m&aacute;s Triton al 0.2% como agente dispersante (Alc&aacute;zar y Raman   1992). Esta formulaci&oacute;n se utiliz&oacute; para la proporci&oacute;n de   5 kg/ton de papa para el almacenamiento. En esta investigaci&oacute;n   se demostr&oacute; que los tub&eacute;rculos tratados con el granulovirus   presentaron 7, 8, 13 y 31% de tub&eacute;rculos da&ntilde;ados a los   30, 60, 90 y 120 d&iacute;as de almacenamiento respectivamente;   mientras que los tub&eacute;rculos sin protecci&oacute;n presentaron 64,   96, 100 y 100% de da&ntilde;o respectivamente. Estos resultados indican una reducci&oacute;n del da&ntilde;o en 89, 91, 87 y 69% a los 30,   60, 90 y 120 d&iacute;as de almacenamiento.</p>     <p>  Pruebas realizadas a 25&ordm;C por Arthurs <i>et al</i>. (2008a) indicaron   que las suspensiones de PhopGV en agua o mezclado   con diluentes (talco, arena, tierra de diatomeas y arcilla   caol&iacute;n), fueron efectivas para controlar larvas neonatas   en tub&eacute;rculos   almacenados. Las suspensiones acuosas de   PhopGV y virus formulado con talco provocaron 100% de   mortalidad de larvas neonatas en tub&eacute;rculos pre-infestados a   concentraciones bajas como 0,00625 EL (equivalentes larvales)   de PhopGV/kg tub&eacute;rculos. Sin embargo, el tratamiento   de tub&eacute;rculos post-infestados con 0,4 EL de PhopGV/kg de   tub&eacute;rculos   provoc&oacute; solamente 92% de mortalidad. El efecto   del PhopGV sobre la mortalidad y dispersi&oacute;n en condiciones   de almac&eacute;n refrigerado fue reportado por Lacey <i>et al</i>. (2010).   El virus ocasion&oacute; un control efectivo de <i>P. operculella</i> en papas   infestadas y tambi&eacute;n redujo la dispersi&oacute;n de las larvas   que salieron de los tub&eacute;rculos infestados a los tub&eacute;rculos no   infestados.</p>     <p>  El potencial para el desarrollo de resistencia al virus de la   granulosis PhopGV en larvas de <i>P. operculella</i> ha sido estudiado   por Briese y Mende (1981, 1983) y Sporleder (2003).   Briese y Mende (1981) notaron diferencias en susceptibilidad   al virus PhopGV entre poblaciones de <i>P. operculella</i> en campos   de Australia. Usando un bioensayo en laboratorio ellos   compararon la susceptibilidad de 16 poblaciones en campo y   observaron una diferencia de 11,6 veces entre las poblaciones   m&aacute;s y menos susceptibles. Despu&eacute;s de exposiciones seriadas   de larvas susceptibles de <i>P. operculella</i> al virus PhopGV   durante seis generaciones, Briese y Mende (1983) observaron   un incremento de 140 veces la dosis letal media (LD50).   Observaciones similares fueron hechas por Sporleder (2003).   Larvas de <i>P. operculella</i> que sobrevivieron a la exposici&oacute;n   de concentraciones de virus que produjeron 50, 75 y 90% de   mortalidad de las poblaciones progenitoras susceptibles fueron   altamente resistentes al virus despu&eacute;s de 12 generaciones.   Una retrocruza sencilla con la poblaci&oacute;n susceptible no redujo   el nivel de resistencia. Basado en los reportes anteriores,   los manejos de resistencia deben ser incorporados en los programas   de control que regularmente usan el virus PhopGV.</p>     <p>  M&eacute;todos para la producci&oacute;n in vivo de PhopGV son presentados   en Reed y Springett (1971), CIP (1992), Kroschel   <i>et al</i>. (1996b), Sporleder (2003), Zeddam <i>et al</i>. (2003), y Villamizar   <i>et al</i>. (2005). B&aacute;sicamente los m&eacute;todos empleados   para la producci&oacute;n masiva de <i>P. operculella</i> se basan en la   infecci&oacute;n de larvas reci&eacute;n nacidas expuestas a las papas que   han sido tratadas por inmersi&oacute;n en una suspensi&oacute;n acuosa de   larvas trituradas e infectadas con PhopGV. Alternativamente,   los huevos de <i>P. operculella</i> pueden sumergirse en suspensiones   de PhopGV (Sporleder <i>et al</i>. 2005). Las larvas consumen   el virus directamente cuando salen del huevo y son colocadas   en papas en las cuales se desarrollan. Otro m&eacute;todo de producci&oacute;n   involucra la aspersi&oacute;n de suspensiones del virus en plantas   de papa infestadas en el campo, la colecci&oacute;n del follaje   infestado despu&eacute;s de que la larva muere, y la separaci&oacute;n de la   larva infectada del follaje exponi&eacute;ndolo al calor (Matthiessen   <i>et al</i>. 1978). Sporleder (2003) present&oacute; informaci&oacute;n sobre   los efectos de la temperatura, concentraci&oacute;n inicial del virus,   estadio larvario y densidad por gramo de papa en los rendimientos   de los cuerpos de oclusi&oacute;n del virus. El n&uacute;mero de   larvas infectadas con el virus aument&oacute; al aumentar la concentraci&oacute;n   del virus con una concentraci&oacute;n &oacute;ptima de 10<sup>9</sup> cuerpos   de inclusi&oacute;n/ml de suspensi&oacute;n. La temperatura &oacute;ptima y   la densidad larvaria para la producci&oacute;n del virus fueron de   25&deg;C y dos gramos de papa/larva respectivamente. Pokharkar   y Kurhade (1999) reportaron adem&aacute;s 25&deg;C como &oacute;ptima para   la producci&oacute;n del virus. L&eacute;ry <i>et al</i>. (1997) y Sudeep <i>et al</i>.   (2005) reportaron el establecimiento de l&iacute;neas de c&eacute;lulas de   <i>P. operculella</i> y demostraron su utilidad para la producci&oacute;n   de virus <i>in vitro</i>. El virus se ha producido comercialmente   en Per&uacute;, Bolivia, Egipto y T&uacute;nez. Aunque el virus PhopGV   no est&aacute; disponible comercialmente en los Estados Unidos, su   desarrollo y registro est&aacute; garantizado basado en la necesidad   del control de <i>P. operculella</i>, el potencial del virus PhopGV   para retardar el desarrollo de resistencia a insecticidas convencionales.   La seguridad del virus PhopGV le permitir&aacute; ser   usado en los sistemas de manejo integrado de plagas (MIP)   con un m&iacute;nimo impacto sobre los organismos ben&eacute;ficos no   espec&iacute;ficos (Lacey y Arthurs 2008; Lacey y Kroschel 2009).</p>     <p><b>  Bacterias</b></p>     <p>  <i>Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner</i>, 1915 (<i>Bt</i>) es la &uacute;nica bacteria   que ha sido evaluada para el control de <i>P. operculella</i>. Esta   bacteria produce en forma natural toxinas cristalinas (venenos   estomacales) que causan intoxicaci&oacute;n en los insectos por la   ruptura de las c&eacute;lulas epiteliales del intestino medio del tracto   digestivo (Beegle y Yamamoto 1992; Garczynski y Siegel   2007). Los insecticidas basados en las toxinas de <i>Bt</i> son los   m&aacute;s usados mundialmente como plaguicidas microbiales y se   producen comercialmente para su uso contra un amplio rango   de plagas incluyendo cole&oacute;pteros (escarabajos), d&iacute;pteros   (moscas y mosquitos) y lepid&oacute;pteros (mariposas y polillas)   incluidas especies que atacan a la papa (Krieg <i>et al</i>. 1983;   Hamilton y Macdonald 1990; Kroschel y Koch 1996; Lacey   <i>et al</i>. 1999, 2001b; Wraight y Ramos 2005; Wraight <i>et al</i>.   2007; Arthurs <i>et al</i>. 2008a, 2008b). <i>Bt</i> es considerado ideal   para el manejo de plagas porque es espec&iacute;fico para plagas e   inocuo para humanos y enemigos naturales de muchas plagas   de cultivos. Formulaciones agr&iacute;colas t&iacute;picas de <i>Bt</i> incluyen   polvos humectables, concentrados l&iacute;quidos, polvos, cebos y   otros, y se comercializan con nombres como Acrobe, Bactospeine,   Certan, Dipel, Javelin, Leptox, Novabac, Thuricide   y Victory (Navon 2000; Garczynski y Siegel 2007) Para ser   efectivos, los cristales de <i>Bt</i> tienen que ser ingeridos por la   larva, siendo inefectivo contra insectos adultos. La muerte   puede ocurrir dentro de pocas horas o en pocas semanas de la   aplicaci&oacute;n de <i>Bt</i>, dependiendo de la especie de insecto, edad   y de la cantidad de <i>Bt</i> ingerido. Aunque hay muchas razas de   <i>Bt</i>, cada una con una toxicidad espec&iacute;fica a ciertos tipos de   insectos, <i>Bt</i> subespecie <i>kurstaki</i> es la m&aacute;s com&uacute;nmente usada   contra lepid&oacute;pteros (Navon 2000). En Bolivia se detectaron   incidencias naturales de <i>Bt</i> en poblaciones nativas de <i>P. operculella</i>   (Hern&aacute;ndez <i>et al</i>. 2005). Se aislaron muchas razas de   suelos agr&iacute;colas, bodegas y papas infestadas con <i>P. operculella</i>.   Aun m&aacute;s, algunas de las cepas mostraron tener igual o   incluso mayor toxicidad comparadas con una cepa comercial   normal (HD -1), lo que sugiere que se pueden desarrollar cepas nativas m&aacute;s efectivas.</p>     <p>  <i>Bt</i> ha sido ampliamente probada para controlar infestaciones   de <i>P. operculella</i> en laboratorio, campo y en condiciones   de almacenamiento. La concentraci&oacute;n letal media (LC<sub>50</sub>) requerida   aumenta con la edad de la larva (Salama <i>et al</i>. 1995a).   <i>Bt</i> subespecie <i>kurstaki</i> (Turicide HP) aplicada a 200mg/ kg de   papa redujo sustancialmente la sobrevivencia de <i>P. operculella</i>   del huevo a la emergencia del adulto (0,4%), comparado con PhopGV (0,8-34,7%, dependiendo de la dosis) o el testigo   (32,5%) (von Arx y Gebhardt 1990). En otros estudios de   laboratorio, formulaciones con polvo de <i>Bt</i> (5000 unidades   internacionales/mg) junto con permetrina (0,1%), protiofos   (1%) y rotenona (2,4%) dieron buena proteccion a las papas   contra infestaciones de <i>P. operculella</i> y fueron mas efectivas   controlando infestaciones comparadas con 1% clorpirifos   (Hamilton y Macdonald 1990). En estudios de laboratorio e   invernadero la potencia de <i>Bt</i> se mantuvo por mas de 60 dias   cuando se aplico al suelo para proteger semillas o papas en   maceta (Amonkar <i>et al</i>. 1979).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>  <i>Bt</i> controla exitosamente las infestaciones de <i>P. operculella</i>   en condiciones de campo, sin embargo, es necesario hacer   varias aplicaciones porque <i>Bt</i> se degrada con los rayos   ultravioleta (UV) del sol, y se pierde del suelo con la lluvia   (Salama <i>et al</i>. 1995b; Arthurs <i>et al</i>. 2008b). Se necesitaron   tres aplicaciones consecutivas de <i>Bt</i> (B10-T) en intervalos   de ocho dias para controlar a <i>P. operculella</i> en un cultivo de   tomate en Israel (Broza y Sneh 1994). Se utilizaron aplicaciones   de alto volumen (500 l/ha) para hacer llegar el ingrediente   activo a los tuneles de las hojas donde las larvas jovenes   estaban minandolas. En pruebas de campo en la India,   aplicaciones foliares de <i>Bt</i> (Thuricide a 2-5 Kg/ha) en intervalos   de 15 dias iniciados 60 dias despues de la plantacion,   resultaron casi tan efectivas para controlar las infestaciones   de <i>P. operculella</i> como el Paration y el Carbaril aplicados a la   superficie del suelo, resultando en un rendimiento promedio   de papas de 9,3 - 10,7 ton/ha, comparado con 6,7 toneladas   sin insecticidas (Awate y Naik 1979). En la Republica de Yemen   las infestaciones de Polilla de la papa son muy altas,   Kroschel (1995) ensayo <i>Bt</i> (&acute;Dipel&acute;) por dos estaciones, en   dos concentraciones (0,2% y 0,3%) con tres y cuatro aplicaciones   por estacion de papa. En el tratamiento testigo la   infestacion en hojas alcanzo 26 y 25 minas por planta. La   aplicacion de <i>Bt</i> hasta la fase de amarillamiento de la planta,   redujo la infestacion de hojas por la polilla en 41 % y 54 % y   al final la infestacion de los tuberculos a la cosecha en 23% y   10% respectivamente, comparado con el tratamiento testigo.   En comparacion, los mejores resultados se lograron con el   piretroide Fenvalerato (0,1%) el cual redujo la infestacion de   hojas en 100% y la infestacion de tuberculos en 70%.</p>     <p>  En muchas partes del mundo, tambien se ha evaluado a <i>Bt</i>   y otros metodos no quimicos para el control de <i>P. operculella</i>   despues de la cosecha en almacenes de papa tradicionales (no   refrigerados). En Yemen, Kroschel y Koch (1996) evaluaron   varios plaguicidas de bajo riesgo para proteger las papas de   <i>P. operculella</i> en el almacen. Aplicaciones sobre las papas de   <i>Bt</i> mezclado con arena fina y polvo resulto completamente   efectivo contra los huevecillos recien depositados, y controlo   ademas al 96% de larvas que ya estaban dentro de la papa.   En Egipto, otra preparacion de <i>Bt</i> (Dipel 2X 0.3%) resulto   ser muy efectiva en almacen, eliminando la infestacion de <i>P. operculella</i> frente a una infestacion del 100% en los testigos   no tratados 60 dias despues del tratamiento (Farrag 1998).   En Tunez, el manejo integrado de <i>Bt</i> aplicado en el comienzo   del periodo de almacenaje en combinacion con el control   cultural (cosecha temprana) elimino la dependencia de fumigaciones   con paration (von Ark <i>et al</i>. 1987). En los casos en   que la papa tenia una infestacion inicial alta (mayor a 20%),   se reemplazo a <i>Bt</i> con un piretroide sintetico (Permetrina).   En Indonesia, tratamientos con <i>Bt</i> subespecie <i>kurstaki</i> (Thuricide   en 2 g/l) causo 79% de mortalidad en larvas despues   de cuatro meses de almacenaje comparado con 58% de mortalidad   de larvas sobre el follaje en invernadero (Setiawaiti   <i>et al</i>. 1999). En Peru, Raman <i>et al</i>. (1987) encontraron que   <i>Bt</i> subespecie <i>kurstaki</i> (Dipel) fue efectiva reduciendo el   dano de alimentacion en el almacenamiento cuando se aplico   como formulacion en polvo. El aceite vegetal (1-2%) ademas   redujo la eclosion de huevos pero fue fitotoxico, resultando   en niveles altos de pudricion de papas. Sin embargo, en otros   estudios, <i>Bt</i> subespecie thuringiensis (0,2% Bactospeine WP   16000 IU/mg) fue inefectivo en la proteccion de las papas   en el almacenamiento, resultando tantas papas danadas como   los controles no tratados (Das <i>et al</i>. 1992).</p>     <p>  Otra investigacion sugiere que la efectividad de <i>Bt</i> puede   mejorarse mediante formulaciones con extractos vegetales   con propiedades insecticidas. Por ejemplo, extractos de <i>Atropa belladona</i> L., 1753, <i>Hyoscyamus niger</i> L., 1753 y <i>Solanum nigrum</i> L., 1753 (Solanaceae) redujeron la concentracion   letal media (LC<sub>50</sub>) de <i>Bt</i> contra <i>P. operculella</i> de 82 a 43,   31 y 40 &fnof;&Ecirc;g/ml, respectivamente (Sabbour y Ismail 2002).</p>     <p><b>  Nematodos Entomopatogenos</b></p>     <p>  Los nematodos entomopatogenos (NEPs) son parasitos especificos   de insectos de los generos <i>Steinernema</i> (Steinernematide)   y <i>Heterorhabditis</i> (Heterorhabditidae) que estan   asociados obligadamente con bacterias simbioticas (<i>Xenorhabdis</i>   spp. y <i>Photorhabdis</i> spp., respectivamente). Estas ultimas   son responsables de matar rapidamente a los insectos   hospederos. Despues de entrar a un insecto hospedante, los   nematodos en su etapa juvenil infectiva liberan una bacteria   simbiotica. Ademas de matar al hospedante, la bacteria digiere   los tejidos del insecto y produce antibioticos que protegen   el cadaver de organismos saprofitos y carroneros (Kaya   y Gaugler 1993). Despues de dos o tres ciclos reproductivos,   cuando se reducen los nutrientes del hospedante, los estadios   juveniles infecciosos se reproducen y abandonan al insecto   hospedante. Este estado es capaz de infectar a los nuevos   hospedantes o persistir por meses sin ellos (Kaya y Gaugler   1993; Glazer 2002). En las ultimas cinco decadas se ha demostrado   el potencial de los NEPs como agentes de control   biologico de una gran variedad de insectos plaga (Georgis <i>et al</i>. 2006). Actualmente se producen comercialmente varias   especies de NEPs para el control de diversas especies de insectos   plaga de importancia economica (Grewal <i>et al</i>. 2005;   Koppenhofer 2007). Sin embargo, su uso para el control de   <i>P. operculella</i> se ha investigado solo recientemente. Investigaciones   sobre el efecto de nematodos entomopatogenos en   <i>P. operculella</i> en el Laboratorio de Investigacion Agricola de   Yakima, en Wapato, Washington, revelaron un buen potencial   para el control de estadios de la palomilla que entran y salen   del suelo. Se considera que estos nematodos tienen potencial   para el control de <i>P. operculella</i> en pilas de desecho de papas.   Se demostro que la L4 de todas las especies del complejo   de <i>P. operculella</i> son altamente susceptibles a las cepas de   <i>Heterorhabditis</i> sp. procedentes de los altos de los Andes de Ecuador y Peru (J. Alcazar datos no publicados).</p>     <p><b>  Hongos Entomopatogenos</b></p>     <p>  Numerosas especies de hongos entomopatogenos son agentes   efectivos para el control microbiano de varias especies   de insectos plaga (Goettel <i>et al</i>. 2005; Ekesi y Maniania   2007), incluyendo algunas plagas claves de la papa (Lacey   <i>et al</i>. 1999, 2009; Wraight y Ramos 2005, Wraight <i>et al</i>. 2007, 2009). Sin embargo, las investigaciones sobre el uso   de hongos para el control de <i>P. operculella</i> a&uacute;n son limitadas.   Estudios de laboratorio con dos Hypocreales comunes,   <i>Metarhizium anisopliae</i> (Metschnikoff) Sorok y <i>Beauveria bassiana</i> (Balsamo) Vuillmen, indican que tienen potencial   para el control de larvas de <i>P. operculella</i>, particularmente   larvas j&oacute;venes (Hafez <i>et al</i>. 1997; Sewify <i>et al</i>. 2000). Hafez   <i>et al</i>. (1997) tambi&eacute;n demostraron la actividad de B. bassiana   contra prepupas, pupas y adultos de <i>P. operculella</i>. Sewify <i>et al</i>. (2000) reportaron que la combinaci&oacute;n de M. anisopliae   y PhopGV tuvo un efecto sin&eacute;rgico para el control de larvas   cuando utiliz&oacute; una concentraci&oacute;n alta del hongo con una concentraci&oacute;n   baja del virus.</p>     <p>  El hongo endof&iacute;tico, <i>Muscodor albus</i>, Worapong <i>et al</i>.   2001, produce varios compuestos vol&aacute;tiles como alcohol, &eacute;steres, cetonas, &aacute;cidos y l&iacute;pidos, que son biocidas para un amplio rango de organismos incluyendo bacterias y hongos fipatogenos, nem&aacute;todos e insectos (Strobel <i>et al</i>. 2001; Worapong <i>et al</i>. 2001; Riga <i>et al</i>. 2008; Lacey <i>et al</i>. 2008). La actividad contra adultos y larvas de <i>M. albus</i> fue reportada contra <i>P. operculella</i> por Lacey y Neven (2006) y Lacey <i>et al</i>. (2008). Los adultos y larvas neonatas de <i>P. operculella</i> fueron expuestos a los vol&aacute;tiles de <i>M. albus</i> por 72 horas en c&aacute;maras herm&eacute;ticamente cerradas. Los porcentajes promedio de mortalidad de adultos de <i>P. operculella</i> en las c&aacute;maras con 15 y 30 g de micelio formulado fueron de 84,65 y 90,6%, respectivamente. El desarrollo del estado de pupa de <i>P. operculella</i> que fueron tratadas como larvas neonatas en tub&eacute;rculos infestados, con 15 y 30 g de micelio formulado de <i>M. albus</i> se redujo a 61,8% y 72,8%, respectivamente. Lacey <i>et al</i>. (2008) observaron que el tiempo de exposici&oacute;n al hongo <i>M. albus</i> afect&oacute; significativamente la mortalidad de larvas cuando est&aacute;n infectando los tub&eacute;rculos y su desarrollo hacia el estado de adulto. La duraci&oacute;n del tiempo de exposici&oacute;n de 3, 7 &oacute; 14 d&iacute;as a 24&deg;C seguido por un periodo de incubaci&oacute;n a 27&deg;C hasta la emergencia de adultos provoc&oacute; una mortalidad de 84,2%, 95,5% y de 99,6%, respectivamente. A 10&deg;C y 15&deg;C, la mortalidad de larvas se redujo significativamente.</p> </font>     <p>  <font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>Conclusiones</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana" size="2">     <p>  Los enemigos naturales como par&aacute;sitos, depredadores y pat&oacute;genos   pueden ejercer un control substancial de las poblaciones   de <i>P. operculella</i>, especialmente cuando se utilizan pocos   insecticidas adicionales (Matthiessen y Springett 1973; Briese   1981; Kroschel y Koch 1994; Coll <i>et al</i>. 2000; Kroschel y   Lacey 2008; Lacey y Kroschel 2009). Es probable que ninguna   especie de enemigo natural provea por si sola un control   adecuado, pero juntas pueden complementarse y regular a <i>P. operculella</i> durante toda la temporada de crecimiento, en las   diferentes etapas de su ciclo de vida y en varias densidades de   poblaciones de la palomilla. Adem&aacute;s de su utilidad para controlar   <i>P. operculella</i> y otros insectos plaga, los pat&oacute;genos espec&iacute;ficos   ofrecen otros beneficios incluyendo seguridad para   los aplicadores y consumidores, e inocuidad sobre enemigos   naturales y el ambiente (Laird <i>et al</i>. 1990; Hokkanen y Hajek   2003). La integraci&oacute;n de pat&oacute;genos y nem&aacute;todos contra insectos   espec&iacute;ficos en el agroecosistema de la papa depender&aacute;   de su compatibilidad con otros agentes de control, incluyendo   plaguicidas, as&iacute; como efecto de las condiciones del ambiente   en su infectividad y persistencia. Su utilizaci&oacute;n adecuada   requerir&aacute; de la selecci&oacute;n de cepas de pat&oacute;genos efectivas, del   desarrollo de formulaciones para mejorar el su vida &uacute;til en almacenamiento,   aplicaci&oacute;n y persistencia, de la selecci&oacute;n cuidadosa   de la etapa de aplicaci&oacute;n &oacute;ptima, as&iacute; como del mejor   entendimiento de &ldquo;c&oacute;mo&rdquo; se integran a los sistemas de producci&oacute;n   de la papa. En &uacute;ltima instancia, su implementaci&oacute;n   depender&aacute; del mejor conocimiento de sus atributos por parte de los productores y el p&uacute;blico (Lacey <i>et al</i>. 2001a).</p> </font>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>  Agradecimientos</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana" size="2">     <p>  Nina B&aacute;rcenas, Jorge Toledo, Don Hostetter y a Jaime Molina,   por sus comentarios constructivos a este manuscrito.</p> </font>     <p><font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>  Literatura citada</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana" size="2">     <!-- ref --><p>  ALC&Aacute;ZAR, J.; CERVANTES, M.; RAMAN, K. V.; SALAS, R. 1991. Un virus como agente de la polilla de la papa <i>Phthorimaea operculella</i>. Revista Peruana Entomolog&iacute;a 34: 101-104.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000056&pid=S0120-0488201000020000100001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>  ALC&Aacute;ZAR, J.; CERVANTES, M.; RAMAN, K.V. 1992a. 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