<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0120-3053</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Apuntes del Cenes]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Apuntes del Cenes]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0120-3053</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia (UPTC)]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0120-30532022000200071</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.19053/01203053.v41.n74.2022.13961</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[The Political Economy of Trade Barriers in Peru]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[La economía política de las barreras comerciales en Perú]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Tello Pacheco]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Mario Delfín]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="Af1">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos in Lima  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>Peru</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>41</volume>
<numero>74</numero>
<fpage>71</fpage>
<lpage>107</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0120-30532022000200071&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0120-30532022000200071&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0120-30532022000200071&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Abstract: This paper analyzes the political economy factors and actors that may have influenced trade instruments in Peru during the liberalization period of 2001-2015 (which started in 1990 under Fujimori's administration). The evidence supports the hypothesis that Peruvian trade barriers liberalization in period 2000-2015 was led by the "Ministry of Economy and Finance (MEF)", accompanied by traditional and diversified exporters (that consolidated the unilateral trade liberalization) and by import substitution firms that influenced to some degree, and slowed down the rate of liberalization of unilateral trade barriers. In addition, the unilateral trade liberalization was facilitated by the weak role of the formal labor force and liberal-oriented consumer interest groups.  JEL Classification: P16, F13]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Resumen Este artículo analiza los factores y actores de la economía política que pueden haber influido en los instrumentos comerciales en Perú durante el período de liberalización de 2001-2015 (que comenzó en 1990 bajo la administración de Fujimori). El análisis y las evidencias respaldan la hipótesis de que la liberalización de las barreras comerciales peruanas en el período 2000-2015 fue liderada por el el Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas (MEF), acompañado por exportadores tradicionales y diversificados que consolidaron la liberalización comercial unilateral, y por empresas de sustitución de importaciones que influyeron en cierto grado y redujeron la tasa de velocidad del proceso de liberalización de las barreras comerciales unilaterales. Además, la liberalización unilateral del comercio fue facilitada por el papel débil de la fuerza laboral formal y los grupos de interés del consumidor con orientación liberal.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[tariffs]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[non-tariff barriers]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[political economy]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Ministry of Economy and Finance]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Peru]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[aranceles]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[barreras no arancelarias]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[economía política]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Perú]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><back>
<ref-list>
<ref id="B1">
<label>[1]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>Banco Mundial</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Tomando impulso en la agricultura peruana. Oportunidades para aumentar la productividad y mejorar la competitividad del sector]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Banco Internacional de Reconstrucción y Fomento / Banco Mundial.]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B2">
<label>[2]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Baldwin]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Political Economy of US Import Policy]]></source>
<year>1985</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[MIT Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B3">
<label>[3]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Baldwin]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[U.S. Tariff Policy: Formation and Effects. Discussion Paper, Office of Foreign Economic Research, US Department of Labor]]></source>
<year>1976</year>
<month>,</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B4">
<label>[4]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bardales]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Informalidad y subempleo: evidencia microeconométrica para el caso peruano]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Horizonte Económico]]></source>
<year>2012</year>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>1-17</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B5">
<label>[5]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>BCRP</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Estadísticas económicas]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Central Bank of Reserve of Peru]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B6">
<label>[6]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bhattacharjea]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Strategic Trade Policy and Developing Countries]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Economic and Political Weekly]]></source>
<year>1993</year>
<volume>28</volume>
<numero>35</numero>
<issue>35</issue>
<page-range>1803-10</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B7">
<label>[7]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Blundell]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R. W.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Smith]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[An Exogeneity Test for a Simultaneous Equation Tobit Model with an Application to Labor Supply]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Econometrica]]></source>
<year>1986</year>
<volume>54</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>679-86</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B8">
<label>[8]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Boloña]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Cambio de Rumbo. El programa económico para los 90]]></source>
<year>1993</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto de Economía de Libre Mercado San Ignacio de Loyola]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B9">
<label>[9]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brander]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Spencer]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[International R &amp; D Rivalry and Industrial Strategy]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Review of Economic Studies]]></source>
<year>1983</year>
<month>,</month>
<volume>50</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>707-22</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B10">
<label>[10]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brander]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Spencer]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Export Subsidies and International Market Share Rivalry]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of International Economics]]></source>
<year>1985</year>
<numero>18</numero>
<issue>18</issue>
<page-range>83-100</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B11">
<label>[11]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brock]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[W.A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Magee]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[An Economic Theory of Politics: The Case of Tariffs]]></source>
<year>1974</year>
<month>,</month>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Mimeo]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B12">
<label>[12]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brock]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[W.A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Magee]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. P]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Economics of Pork-Barrel Politics. Report 7511]]></source>
<year>1975</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Center for Mathematical Studies in Business and Economics, University of Chicago]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B13">
<label>[13]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brock]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[W.A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Magee]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.P.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Economics of Special Interest Politics: The Case of the Tariff]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Economic Association Papers and Proceedings]]></source>
<year>1978</year>
<numero>68</numero>
<issue>68</issue>
<page-range>246-50</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B14">
<label>[14]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brock]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[W.A]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Tariff Formation in a Democracy]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Magee]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.P]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Black]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hindley]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Current Issues in Commercial Policy and Diplomacy]]></source>
<year>1980</year>
<page-range>1-9</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[Trade Policy Research Centre]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B15">
<label>[15]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brock]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[W.A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Magee]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.P]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[A Model of Politics, Tariffs and Rent Seeking in General Equilibrium]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Weisbrod]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hughes]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[H]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Human Resources, Employment and Development Volume 3: The Problems of Developed Countries and the International Economy]]></source>
<year>1983</year>
<page-range>497-526</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[International Economic Association Series Book Series (IEA)]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B16">
<label>[16]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Castillo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C. J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Distribución factorial del ingreso en el Perú 1940-2013]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Lima, Perú ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad del Pacífico]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B17">
<label>[17]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Castro-García]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[El rol actual de las asociaciones de consumidores en el Perú]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[ADEPRIN]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B18">
<label>[18]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dixit]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Londregan]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Redistributive Politics and Economic Efficiency]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Political Science Review]]></source>
<year>1995</year>
<volume>89</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>856-66</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B19">
<label>[19]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dornbusch]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Case for Trade Liberalization in Developing Countries]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of Economic Perspectives]]></source>
<year>1992</year>
<volume>6</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>69-85</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B20">
<label>[20]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Durand]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Los nuevos dueños del Perú]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Revista Quehacer]]></source>
<year>2004</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B21">
<label>[21]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Durand]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La mano invisible en el Estado. Crítica a los neoliberales criollos]]></source>
<year>2010</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fondo Editorial del Pedagógico San Marcos]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B22">
<label>[22]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Durand]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[F]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Los Doce Apóstoles de la economía peruana: una mirada social a los grupos de poder limeños y provincianos]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fondo Editorial de la PUCP]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B23">
<label>[23]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Edwards]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lederman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Political Economy of Unilateral Trade Liberalization: The Case of Chile]]></source>
<year>1998</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[NBER WP No 6510]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B24">
<label>[24]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Findlay]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Wellisz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Endogenous Tariffs, the Political Economy of Trade Restrictions, and Welfare]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bhagwati]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. N.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Import Competition and Response]]></source>
<year>1982</year>
<page-range>223-44</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B25">
<label>[25]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Galván-Pareja]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Las asociaciones de consumidores en Lima: desarrollo y limitaciones]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Pensamiento Crítico]]></source>
<year>2006</year>
<numero>6</numero>
<issue>6</issue>
<page-range>9-23</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B26">
<label>[26]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Goldberg]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Maggi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Protection for Sale: An Empirical Investigation]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Economic Review]]></source>
<year>1999</year>
<volume>89</volume>
<numero>5</numero>
<issue>5</issue>
<page-range>1135-55</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B27">
<label>[27]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Grossman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Helpman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Protection for Sale]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Economic Review]]></source>
<year>1994</year>
<volume>84</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>833-50</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B28">
<label>[28]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Helpman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Politics and Trade Policy. NBER WP 5309]]></source>
<year>1995</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B29">
<label>[29]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hillman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. L]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Declining Industries and Political-Support Protectionist Motives]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The American Economic Review]]></source>
<year>1982</year>
<volume>72</volume>
<numero>5</numero>
<issue>5</issue>
<page-range>1180-7</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B30">
<label>[30]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hillman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. L]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Political Economy of Protection]]></source>
<year>1989</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Harwood Academic Publishers]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B31">
<label>[31]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>Indecopi</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Estado de la protección de los consumidores en el Perú. Informe Anual 2016]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Indecopi]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B32">
<label>[32]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>INEI</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Matriz insumo producto 365x 101]]></source>
<year>2007</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[INEI]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B33">
<label>[33]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>INEI</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Producción y empleo informal en el Perú: cuenta satélite de la economía informal 2007-2012]]></source>
<year>2014</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[INEI]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B34">
<label>[34]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>INEI</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Producción y empleo informal en el Perú: cuenta satélite de la economía informal 2007-2016]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[INEI]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B35">
<label>[35]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>INEI</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Encuesta Económica Anual, 2000-2016]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<month>a</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B36">
<label>[36]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>INEI</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Encuesta Nacional de Hogares, 2000-2016]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<month>b</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B37">
<label>[37]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>INEI</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Cuentas nacionales]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<month>c</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B38">
<label>[38]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<source><![CDATA[]]></source>
<year></year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B39">
<label>[39]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Krishna]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Gawande]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Political Economy of Trade Policy: Empirical Approaches]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Choi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E. Kwan]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Harrigan]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Handbook of International Trade]]></source>
<year>2003</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Blackwell Publishing]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B40">
<label>[40]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Krugman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Is Free Trade Passé?]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Journal of Economic Perspectives]]></source>
<year>1987</year>
<volume>1</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>131-44</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B41">
<label>[41]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Krugman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Industrial Organization and International Trade]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Handbook of Industrial Organization]]></source>
<year>1989</year>
<page-range>1181-223</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[North-Holland Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B42">
<label>[42]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Krugman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Narrow and Broad Arguments for Free Trade]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The American Economic Review]]></source>
<year>1993</year>
<volume>83</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>362-6</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B43">
<label>[43]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Laird]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Yeats]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Quantitative Methods for Trade Barrier Analysis]]></source>
<year>1990</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[New York University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B44">
<label>[44]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Lederman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Political Economy of Protection: Theory and the Chilean Experience]]></source>
<year>2005</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Stanford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B45">
<label>[45]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ludema]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Political Economy of Protection in GVCs: Evidence from Chinese Micro Data]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mayda]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Yu]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Z]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Yu]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of International Economics]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<numero>131</numero>
<issue>131</issue>
<page-range>1-24</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B46">
<label>[46]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ludema]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mayda]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A. M.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mishra]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[P]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Political Economy of U.S. Tariff Suspensions. IMF WP-WP/10/211]]></source>
<year>2010</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B47">
<label>[47]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mclaren]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Political Economy of Commercial Policy]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bagwell]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Steiger]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Handbook of Commercial Policy]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>1</volume>
<page-range>109-59</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[North Holland Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B48">
<label>[48]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Magee]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brock]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[W.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Young]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Black Hole Tariffs and Endogenous Policy Theory: Political Economy in General Equilibrium]]></source>
<year>1989</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B49">
<label>[49]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Maggi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[International Trade Agreements]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Gopinath]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Helpman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rogoff]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Handbook of International Economics]]></source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>4</volume>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Elsevier Science]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B50">
<label>[50]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mayer]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[W]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Endogenous Tariff Formation]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The American Economic Review]]></source>
<year>1984</year>
<volume>74</volume>
<numero>5</numero>
<issue>5</issue>
<page-range>970-85</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B51">
<label>[51]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>MEF</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Crecimiento económico con inclusión social. Memoria sectorial 2006-2011]]></source>
<year>2011</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[MEF]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B52">
<label>[52]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>MEF</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Estadísticas]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B53">
<label>[53]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Milner]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[H]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Political Economy of International Trade]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Annual Review Political Science]]></source>
<year>1999</year>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>91-114</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B54">
<label>[54]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>MINCETUR</collab>
<source><![CDATA[The US-Per TPA]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<month>a</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B55">
<label>[55]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>MINCETUR</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Acuerdos comerciales]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<month>b</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B56">
<label>[56]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<collab>MTPE</collab>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Hacia una interpretación del problema del empleo en el Perú]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Boletín de Economía Laboral]]></source>
<year>1998</year>
<numero>8</numero>
<issue>8</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B57">
<label>[57]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>MTPE</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Informe anual del empleo en el Perú 2012]]></source>
<year>2013</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[MTPE]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B58">
<label>[58]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>MTPE</collab>
<collab>INEI</collab>
<source><![CDATA[La estimación del subempleo en el Perú 1997-2001]]></source>
<year>2002</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[MTPE]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B59">
<label>[59]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mueller]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D. C]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Public Choice III]]></source>
<year>2003</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge Books, Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B60">
<label>[60]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Nabli]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[The Political Economy of Trade Liberalization in Developing Countries]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Open Economies Review]]></source>
<year>1990</year>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>111-45</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B61">
<label>[61]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Nogués]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J. J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[An Historical Perspective of Peru's Trade Liberalization Policies of the 1980s]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Michaely]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Papageorgiou]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Choksi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Liberalizing Foreign Trade: Lessons of Experience in the Developing World]]></source>
<year>1991</year>
<page-range>135-67</page-range><publisher-name><![CDATA[Basil Blackwell]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B62">
<label>[62]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Oatley]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[T]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[International Political Economy]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Routledge ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Taylor &amp; Francis Group]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B63">
<label>[63]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Olson]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups]]></source>
<year>1965</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Harvard University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B64">
<label>[64]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Örgün]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[B]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Strategic Trade Policy Versus Free Trade]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Procedia, Social and Behavioral Sciences]]></source>
<year>2012</year>
<numero>58</numero>
<issue>58</issue>
<page-range>1283-92</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B65">
<label>[65]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>Peru top</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Peru The Top 10,000 Companies. 2000-2015]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Peru TOP Publications]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B66">
<label>[66]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rodrik]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Political Economy of Trade Policy]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Grossman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rogoff]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[K]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Handbook of International Economics]]></source>
<year>1995</year>
<volume>III</volume>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Elsevier Science]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B67">
<label>[67]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sally]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[R]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Political Economy of Trade Liberalization: What Lessons for Reforms Today? Trade Policy Report No 18]]></source>
<year>2007</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[The South African Institute of International Affairs]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B68">
<label>[68]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Schattschneider]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[E. E]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Politics, Pressures, and the Tariff: A Study of Free Enterprise in Pressure Politics, as Shown in the 1929-1930 Revision of the Tariff]]></source>
<year>1935</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Prentice-Hall]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B69">
<label>[69]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sharif]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Z.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Swank]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[O]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Do More Powerful Interest Groups Have a Disproportionate Influence on Policy?]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[De Economist]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<volume>167</volume>
<page-range>127-43</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B70">
<label>[70]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>SUNAT</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Estadística de comercio exterior]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<month>a</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B71">
<label>[71]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>SUNAT</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Estadística de impuestos]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<month>b</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B72">
<label>[72]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Tello]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. D]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Mecanismos hacia el crecimiento económico: el enfoque de la organización industrial en el sector manufacturero peruano, 1970-1990]]></source>
<year>1993</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Consorcio IDRC- PUCP]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B73">
<label>[73]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Tello]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. D]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Indicadores del sector MYPE informal en el Perú: valor agregado, potencial exportador, capacidad de formalizarse y requerimientos de normas técnicas de sus productos]]></source>
<year>2011</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[CISEPA WP No. 310, PUCP]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B74">
<label>[74]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Tello]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. D]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Mediciones del cambio estructural en el Perú: un análisis regional]]></source>
<year>2013</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[WP-Dpt. Economics, PUCP]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B75">
<label>[75]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Trefler]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[D]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Trade Liberalization and the Theory of Endogenous Protection: An Econometric Study of U.S. Import]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of Political Economy]]></source>
<year>1993</year>
<volume>101</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>138-60</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B76">
<label>[76]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>UNCTAD</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Trains: The Global Database on Non-Tariff Measures]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[TRAINS]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B77">
<label>[77]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Uribe]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Informalidad y subempleo en Colombia: dos caras de la misma moneda]]></article-title>
<person-group person-group-type="editor">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ortiz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[García]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[G]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Cuadernos de Administración]]></source>
<year>2008</year>
<volume>21</volume>
<numero>37</numero>
<issue>37</issue>
<page-range>211-41</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B78">
<label>[78]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Vega-Castro]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[Los efectos de la política de liberalización del comercio exterior en el Perú durante el período 1990-1994]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Revista Economía, PUCP]]></source>
<year>2007</year>
<volume>30</volume>
<numero>59-60</numero>
<issue>59-60</issue>
<page-range>97-168</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B79">
<label>[79]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Villavicencio]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[A]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La libertad sindical en el Perú: fundamentos, alcances y regulación]]></source>
<year>2010</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[PLADES Programa Laboral de Desarrollo]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B80">
<label>[80]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>WITS</collab>
<source><![CDATA[World Integrated Trade Solution]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<month>a</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B81">
<label>[81]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>WITS</collab>
<source><![CDATA[Concordancia de productos]]></source>
<year>2018</year>
<month>b</month>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B82">
<label>[82]</label><nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Wooldridge]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[J]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[What's New in Econometrics?]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Lecture 6 Control Functions and Related Methods]]></source>
<year>2007</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[NBER Summer Institute]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
</article>
