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<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0120-4157</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Biomédica]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Biomédica]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0120-4157</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Instituto Nacional de Salud]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0120-41572009000200001</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Therapy of rabies encephalitis]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Jackson]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Alan C]]></given-names>
</name>
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<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,University of Manitoba, Winnipeg Departments of Internal Medicine (Neurology) and of Medical Microbiology ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Manitoba ]]></addr-line>
<country>Canada</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2009</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2009</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>29</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>169</fpage>
<lpage>176</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
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</front><body><![CDATA[  <font face="verdana" size="2"> <b>Editorial</b></p>     <p><font size="4">    <center><b>Therapy of rabies encephalitis</b></center></font></p> <hr size="1">     <p>Worldwide, human rabies continues to be an important public health problem with about 55,000 human deaths each year; most cases occur in Asia and Africa (1). As human rabies transmitted from  dogs has become under control in Latin America, the problem of transmission from vampire and insectivorous bats becomes more apparent. Prevention of rabies in rabies vectors and in humans after exposures is extremely important. But when these steps fail, physicians are faced with a very difficult medical management problem, which was recently comprehensively reviewed by a group of clinicians with expertise in rabies and basic researchers in the pathogenesis of the disease (2). Combination therapy was recommended based on successes in other diseases, including cancer, human immunodeficiency virus infection, and chronic hepatitis C infection. Therapy with a variety of specific agents was discussed as well as the general approach to aggressive therapy and favorable factors for initiating this approach. Unfortunately, no effective therapy is available for rabies at this time. However, until recently only patients who received rabies vaccine prior to the onset of their clinical disease have survived (3). There was a recent American survivor who did not receive rabies vaccine and was the subject of a case report (4), but the reasons for her recovery remain unexplained and controversial.</p>     <p>A number of approaches for treating rabies have been unsuccessful in the past. Therapy with human leukocyte interferon, given as high-dose intraventricular and systemic (intramuscular) administration, in three patients was not associated with a beneficial clinical effect, but this therapy was not initiated until between 8 and 14 days after the onset of symptoms (5). Similarly, antiviral therapy with intravenous ribavirin (16 patients given doses of 16-400 mg) was unsuccessful in China (6). An open trial of therapy with combined intravenous and intrathecal administration of either ribavirin (one patient) or interferon-Î± (three patients) was also unsuccessful (7). Anti-rabies virus hyperimmune serum of either human or equine origin has been administered intravenously and by the intrathecal routes, but there was no beneficial effect (8-11).</p>     <p>In 2004 a 15-year-old female survived rabies in Wisconsin (4). She was bitten by a bat, which escaped and she failed to receive appropriate post-exposure rabies prophylaxis. About one month later she presented with typical clinical features of rabies. The cornerstone of her therapy was therapeutic (induced) coma, which consisted of intravenous benzodiazepines (midazolam) with supplemental barbiturates (phenobarbital) administered in order to maintain a burst-suppression pattern on her electroencephalogram. In addition, she was given intravenous ketamine, intravenous ribavirin, and amantadine. Ribavirin has antiviral activity against rabies virus; amantadine was the subject of only a single previous in vitro report in rabies virus infection (12). On presentation the patient had neutralizing anti-rabies virus antibodies. She has made a fairly good neurological recovery (13). The unanswered question is whether any of the specific therapy she received, apart from good supportive care in a critical care setting, played a fundamental role in her favorable outcome. Dr. Rodney Willoughby tirelessly promotes and champions this approach to the therapy of human rabies, which has been deemed the &quot;Milwaukee Protocol.&quot; </p>     <p>What viral factors may have been important for the girl&#39;s recovery? The bat rabies virus variant was not isolated and may have had attenuated biological properties (14). It is likely that bat rabies virus strains may be less virulent than canine rabies virus strains that are responsible for most human cases of rabies. A previous survivor, who received rabies vaccine prior to the onset of disease, was also infected with a bat rabies virus variant and made an excellent recovery (15). There are preliminary reports of another similar survivor (16), who, likely incidentally, also received the Milwaukee Protocol. Often diagnostic tests, including detection of rabies RNA using the reverse transcription â€“ polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technique and detection of rabies virus antigen using the direct fluorescent antibody technique on tissues and/or fluids (brain tissues not tested), are usually negative in rabies survivors, even in cases where immunization occurred prior to the onset of disease. This is likely because there is immunologically â€“ mediated viral clearance, which is essential for recovery in experimental studies. The Wisconsin girl had developed neutralizing anti-rabies virus antibodies at the time of admission to hospital, which probably occurs in less than 20% of rabies patients. The presence of neutralizing anti-rabies virus antibodies is a marker of an active adaptive immune response that is essential for viral clearance (17). There have been six survivors of rabies who received rabies vaccine prior to the onset of their disease and only one survivor who had not received vaccine. This supports the notion that an early immune response is associated with a positive outcome.</p>     <p>Why is therapy using therapeutic (induced) coma not a good idea? First of all, what is the scientific rationale for therapeutic coma? There is really none at all, and this was pointed out in the Editorial accompanying the case report (18). Therapeutic coma suggested for the therapy of rabies is not just sedation. Therapeutic coma is the deliberate depression of the level of consciousness to reach a burst â€“ suppression pattern on the electroencephalogram, which has been used, although there is doubt if this degree of suppression of brain function is absolutely necessary (19,20), for the management of status epilepticus. Status epilepticus is a neurological emergency that has important life threatening consequences that include systemic failure and permanent neurological injury that is thought to be related to a metabolic-substrate mismatch (20-22). In addition to lacking scientific rationale, there is no experimental evidence supporting this approach for the therapy of rabies or any other infectious disease. Therapeutic coma is not a benign therapy. The therapy itself is associated with many potentially serious adverse effects (20).</p>     <p>Ketamine therapy is another element of the Milwaukee Protocol. When we made recommendations about promising therapies for rabies in 2003, we included intravenous therapy with ketamine (2). This recommendation was based on previous in vitro (23,24) and in vivo (24) studies in rats from Institut Pasteur in Paris, which were published in the early 1990s. Ketamine is a non-competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) antagonist, which was included in the Milwaukee Protocol and administered at a dosage of 48 mg/kg/day as a continuous infusion. The reported in vitro antiviral activity of ketamine was observed at mM concentrations rather than &micro;M concentrations that are associated with activity with NMDA receptors, suggesting an alternative mechanism of action. It has been postulated that ketamine might work through anti-excitotoxic mechanisms, but there is no evidence of excitotoxicity in studies performed in vitro in primary neurons and in an experimental model of rabies in mice at the same dosage that was previously used in rats (25). Furthermore, there was no evidence found supporting a neuroprotective action of ketamine either in vitro or in vivo (25). Even where there is strong experimental evidence of excitotoxicity in animal models, multiple clinical trials in humans have shown a lack of efficacy of neuroprotective agents in stroke (26,27). Hence, it is highly questionable that a strong neuroprotective effect of a therapy given to a single patient without a clear scientific rationale was responsible for a favorable outcome. It is much more probable that this patient would have recovered with only supportive therapy and did well to tolerate the additional &quot;insult&quot; of therapeutic coma without developing significant adverse effects.</p>     <p>It has been claimed that patients receiving the Milwaukee Protocol have survived longer than patients who have not received this therapeutic approach (28). This is not a fair comparison because extraordinary efforts were made in some cases (e.g., an elderly Canadian patient) to maintain therapy despite a prolonged absence of brain function, whereas palliation was likely initiated much earlier in the comparative group that did not receive the Milwaukee Protocol. In the Canadian case, a complete absence of cortical neurons was observed at autopsy with infection of brainstem and cerebellar neurons demonstrated with routine histological staining (presence of Negri bodies) and with positive direct fluorescent antibody staining (29). This should not be considered a therapeutic advance.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Altogether I am aware of at least 14 cases, including 12 summarized in a recent review, in which the main components of the Milwaukee Protocol have been used and fatal outcomes have resulted (30-32). There is also evidence that this protocol has been used in additional cases (31), and perhaps many others, but the details are not known and may never be reported.</p>     <p>Although it remains unclear why an American girl survived rabies in 2004, this outcome offers hope that aggressive approaches to therapy may become more successful in the future. Unfortunately, no effective therapy for rabies is available at this time. It remains highly doubtful that the Milwaukee Protocol will prove to be useful in the management of human rabies. Unfortunately, promotion and repetition of this therapy may impede progress in developing new effective therapies for rabies. An improved understanding of basic mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of rabies in humans and animals may be helpful in the future design of novel therapies for this ancient disease. This may allow the development of new therapeutic approaches for the management of this ancient disease. </p>     <p>Alan C. Jackson, MD</p>     <p>Departments of Internal Medicine (Neurology) and of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada</p>     <p><b>References</b></p>     <!-- ref --><p>1. <b>World Health Organization.</b> WHO expert consultation on rabies: first report. Geneva: WHO; 2005.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000018&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>2. <b>Jackson AC, Warrell MJ, Rupprecht CE, Ertl HC, Dietzschold B, O&#39;Reilly M, <I>et al</I>.</b> Management of rabies in humans. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:60-3.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000019&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100002&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>3. <b>Jackson AC.</b> Human disease. In: Jackson AC, Wunner WH, editors. Rabies. 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Antivir Chem Chemother. 1991;2:9-15.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000041&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100024&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>25. <b>Weli SC, Scott CA, Ward CA, Jackson AC.</b> Rabies virus infection of primary neuronal cultures and adult mice: failure to demonstrate evidence of excitotoxicity. J Virol. 2006;80:10270-3.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000042&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100025&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>26. <b>Cheng YD, Al-Khoury L, Zivin JA. </b>Neuroprotection for ischemic stroke: two decades of success and failure. NeuroRx. 2004;1:36-45.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000043&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100026&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>27. <b>Ginsberg MD.</b> Current status of neuroprotection for cerebral ischemia: synoptic overview. Stroke. 2009;40(Suppl 3):S111-4.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000044&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100027&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>28. <b>Willoughby RE, Roy-Burman A, Martin KW, Christensen JC, Westenkirschner DF, Fleck JD, <I>et al</I>. </b>Generalised cranial artery spasm in human rabies. Dev Biol (Basel). 2008;131:367-75.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000045&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100028&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>29. <b>McDermid RC, Saxinger L, Lee B, Johnstone J, Noel Gibney RT, Johnson M, <I>et al</I>. </b>Human rabies encephalitis following bat exposure: failure of therapeutic coma. Can Med Assoc J. 2008;178:557-61.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000046&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100029&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>30.<b> Wilde H, Hemachudha T, Jackson AC.</b> Viewpoint: management of human rabies. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008;102:979-82.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000047&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100030&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p>31. <b>Rubin J, David D, Willoughby RE Jr, Rupprecht CE, Garcia C, Guarda DC,<I> et al</I>. </b>Applying the Milwaukee protocol to treat canine rabies in Equatorial Guinea. Scand J Infect Dis. 2009;41:372-5.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000048&pid=S0120-4157200900020000100031&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><p>32. <b>Daily Telegraph Online.</b> Rabies, human - United Kingdom (04): (Northern Ireland) ex South Africa. ProMED-mail. 2009; 20090107.0065. Accessed: May 19, 2009. Available at:      <p><a href=http://www.promedmail.org/pls/otn/f?p=2400:1202:19224::NO::F2400_P1202_CHECK_DISPLAY,F2400_P1202_PUB_MAIL_ID:X,75493"  target=_blank>http://www.promedmail.org/pls/otn/f?p=2400:1202:19224::NO::F2400_P1202_CHECK_DISPLAY,F2400_P1202_PUB_MAIL_ID:X,75493"</a></p>      <p><b>Terapia de la encefalitis r&aacute;bica*</b></p>     <p>Alan C. Jackson, M.D.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>En todo el mundo, la rabia humana contin&uacute;a siendo un problema importante de salud p&uacute;blica que causa, aproximadamente, 55.000 muertes anuales, la mayor&iacute;a de ellas en Asia y &Aacute;frica (1). Debido a que en Am&eacute;rica Latina se ha logrado controlar la rabia transmitida por perros, el problema de la transmisi&oacute;n por murci&eacute;lagos vampiros e insect&iacute;voros se ha hecho m&aacute;s evidente. La prevenci&oacute;n de la rabia en los vectores y en los humanos despu&eacute;s de la exposici&oacute;n al virus es muy importante.</p>     <p>No obstante, cuando la prevenci&oacute;n falla, los m&eacute;dicos se enfrentan con muchas dificultades para manejar el problema; esto fue revisado en forma extensa recientemente por un grupo de cl&iacute;nicos expertos en rabia e investigadores b&aacute;sicos de la patog&eacute;nesis de esta enfermedad (2). Se recomend&oacute; la terapia combinada con base en el &eacute;xito logrado con otras enfermedades, incluyendo el c&aacute;ncer, la infecci&oacute;n con el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana y la hepatitis C cr&oacute;nica. Se discuti&oacute; sobre los tratamientos con una variedad de agentes espec&iacute;ficos, as&iacute; como sobre la aproximaci&oacute;n general a una terapia agresiva y los factores favorables para iniciar dicha aproximaci&oacute;n. Infortunadamente, a&uacute;n no existe una terapia disponible para el tratamiento de la rabia. Hasta ahora, s&oacute;lo los pacientes que reciben la vacuna antes del inicio de los s&iacute;ntomas cl&iacute;nicos logran sobrevivir (3). Recientemente, se report&oacute; un caso de supervivencia en Norteam&eacute;rica, de una ni&ntilde;a que no recibi&oacute; vacuna antirr&aacute;bica (4), pero las razones de su recuperaci&oacute;n no se conocen y son objeto de controversia.</p>     <p>Varios intentos para tratar la rabia han fracasado. La terapia con interfer&oacute;n de leucocitos humanos, suministrado en dosis altas por v&iacute;a interventricular y sist&eacute;mica (intramuscular), en tres pacientes, no tuvo efectos cl&iacute;nicos beneficiosos, pero, esta terapia s&oacute;lo se administr&oacute; a los 8 y 14 d&iacute;as despu&eacute;s del inicio de los s&iacute;ntomas (5). Igualmente, en China se ensay&oacute; sin &eacute;xito la terapia antiviral con ribavirina administrada por v&iacute;a intravenosa, en 16 pacientes a quienes se les suministraron dosis de 16 a 400 mg (6). El ensayo abierto de una terapia con la administraci&oacute;n combinada, intravenosa o intratecal, de ribavirina (un paciente) o interfer&oacute;n-Î± (tres pacientes), tampoco tuvo &eacute;xito (7). El suero antirr&aacute;bico hiperinmune de origen humano o equino, suministrado por v&iacute;a intravenosa o intratecal, tampoco logr&oacute; resultados positivos (8-11). </p>     <p>En el a&ntilde;o 2004, una ni&ntilde;a de 15 a&ntilde;os sobrevivi&oacute; a la rabia en Wisconsin (4). Fue mordida por un murci&eacute;lago que escap&oacute; y la joven no recibi&oacute; una profilaxis apropiada posterior a la exposici&oacute;n. Cerca de un mes despu&eacute;s, present&oacute; signos cl&iacute;nicos t&iacute;picos de rabia. La base de su terapia fue el coma terap&eacute;utico inducido, el cual se hizo con benzodiacepina (midazolam) aplicada por v&iacute;a intravenosa con suplemento de barbit&uacute;ricos (fenobarbital) administrado con el prop&oacute;sito de mantener una supresi&oacute;n en el patr&oacute;n de descarga en su electroencefalograma. Adem&aacute;s, se le suministr&oacute; ketamina, ribavirina y amantadina por v&iacute;a intravenosa. La ribavirina tiene efecto antiviral contra la rabia; la amantadina apenas se hab&iacute;a reportado en un s&oacute;lo estudio previo sobre la rabia en condiciones in vitro (12). La paciente present&oacute; anticuerpos neutralizantes contra el virus de la rabia. Posteriormente, se logr&oacute; una buena recuperaci&oacute;n neurol&oacute;gica (13). La pregunta sin resolver es si la terapia espec&iacute;fica que la paciente recibi&oacute;, aparte de los cuidados en la sala de cuidados intensivos, jug&oacute; un papel fundamental en su recuperaci&oacute;n. El doctor Rodney Willoughby promueve incansablemente esta terapia para el tratamiento de la rabia, que se ha denominado &quot;protocolo de Milwaukee&quot;.</p>     <p>&iquest;Qu&eacute; factores de origen viral pudieron haber sido importantes para la recuperaci&oacute;n de la ni&ntilde;a? El virus del murci&eacute;lago agresor no fue aislado y pudo haber tenido propiedades biol&oacute;gicas atenuadas (14). Es probable que las cepas de virus de los murci&eacute;lagos sean menos virulentas que las cepas de virus caninos responsables de la mayor&iacute;a de los casos de rabia. Otro sobreviviente a la rabia </p>     <p>reportado con anterioridad, quien recibi&oacute; la vacuna antes de desarrollar los signos cl&iacute;nicos, tambi&eacute;n hab&iacute;a sido infectado con una variante de virus de murci&eacute;lago y mostr&oacute; una excelente recuperaci&oacute;n (15). Hubo otro reporte de un superviviente en condiciones similares (16), quien tambi&eacute;n recibi&oacute; el protocolo de Milwaukee. Las pruebas de diagn&oacute;stico m&aacute;s frecuentes, incluyendo la detecci&oacute;n de ARN del virus de la rabia mediante la t&eacute;cnica de transcripci&oacute;n inversa de la reacci&oacute;n en cadena de la polimerasa (RT-PCR) y la detecci&oacute;n de ant&iacute;genos virales mediante la t&eacute;cnica de fluorescencia directa en tejidos o fluidos (sin incluir tejido cerebral), generalmente son negativas en los sobrevivientes de rabia, aun en casos en los cuales la inmunizaci&oacute;n se llev&oacute; a cabo con anterioridad al inicio de la enfermedad cl&iacute;nica. Probablemente, esto se debe a que se presenta una eliminaci&oacute;n del virus por mecanismos inmunol&oacute;gicos, la cual ha sido esencial para la recuperaci&oacute;n en estudios experimentales. La ni&ntilde;a de Wisconsin desarroll&oacute; anticuerpos neutralizantes contra la rabia al tiempo que fue admitida en el hospital, lo cual ocurre, probablemente, en menos de 20% de los pacientes con rabia. La presencia de los anticuerpos neutralizantes es un marcador de una respuesta inmune adaptativa que es esencial para la eliminaci&oacute;n del virus (17). Existen seis casos de sobrevivientes de rabia, quienes recibieron la vacuna antes de desarrollar los s&iacute;ntomas de la enfermedad, y s&oacute;lo un sobreviviente que no recibi&oacute; la vacunaci&oacute;n. Esto refuerza la idea de que una respuesta inmune temprana est&aacute; asociada con un resultado positivo.</p>     <p>&iquest;Por qu&eacute; no es buena idea utilizar el coma terap&eacute;utico inducido? Primero que todo, &iquest;cu&aacute;l es la explicaci&oacute;n cient&iacute;fica del coma terap&eacute;utico? Realmente no existe y esto fue enfatizado en el editorial que acompa&ntilde;&oacute; al reporte del caso (18). El coma terap&eacute;utico sugerido para el tratamiento de la rabia no es precisamente una sedaci&oacute;n. El coma terap&eacute;utico es la depresi&oacute;n deliberada del nivel de conciencia para alcanzar una supresi&oacute;n de descargas en el patr&oacute;n del electroencefalograma, que se ha utilizado para el manejo de estados epil&eacute;pticos, aunque se duda si este grado de supresi&oacute;n de la funci&oacute;n cerebral es absolutamente necesario (19,20). El estado epil&eacute;ptico es una emergencia neurol&oacute;gica de importancia vital y de consecuencias que incluyen falla sist&eacute;mica y da&ntilde;o neurol&oacute;gico permanente que se cree est&aacute; relacionado con alteraciones del sustrato metab&oacute;lico (20-22). Adem&aacute;s de la falta de una explicaci&oacute;n cient&iacute;fica, no existen pruebas experimentales que sustenten esta aproximaci&oacute;n terap&eacute;utica para la rabia o para cualquier otra enfermedad infecciosa. El coma terap&eacute;utico no es un tratamiento benigno. Esta terapia est&aacute; asociada con muchos efectos colaterales potencialmente adversos (20).</p>     <p>La administraci&oacute;n de ketamina es otro elemento del protocolo de Milwaukee. Cuando nosotros hicimos recomendaciones sobre las terapias promisorias para rabia en el 2003, incluimos el tratamiento con ketamina por v&iacute;a intravenosa (2). Esta recomendaci&oacute;n se bas&oacute; en estudios previos realizados con ratas, en condiciones in vitro (23,24) e in vivo (24) en el Instituto Pasteur de Par&iacute;s, los cuales se publicaron al iniciar la d&eacute;cada de los noventa. La ketamina es un antagonista no competitivo del N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA), que fue incluido en el protocolo de Milwaukee y administrado en una dosis diaria de 48 mg/kg, como una infusi&oacute;n continua. La actividad antiviral in vitro de la ketamina que se ha reportado se observ&oacute; a concentraciones de milimoles (mM) y no de micromoles (&micro;M) a las que est&aacute;n asociados los receptores de NMDA, lo cual sugiere un mecanismo de acci&oacute;n alternativo. Se ha propuesto que la ketamina podr&iacute;a actuar mediante mecanismos contra la toxicidad de la excitaci&oacute;n, pero no hay evidencia de toxicidad de la excitaci&oacute;n en los estudios realizados con cultivos primarios de neuronas in vitro ni en el modelo experimental de rat&oacute;n a la misma dosis utilizada previamente en ratas (25). Tampoco se encontraron indicios de una acci&oacute;n neuroprotectora de la ketamina in vitro o in vivo (25). Aun cuando hay una fuerte evidencia experimental de toxicidad de la excitaci&oacute;n en modelos animales, diferentes ensayos cl&iacute;nicos en humanos han demostrado falta de eficacia de los agentes neuroprotectores en la isquemia (26,27). Por lo tanto, es dif&iacute;cil creer que el efecto neuroprotector fuerte de una terapia que ha sido dada a un solo paciente, sin una clara explicaci&oacute;n cient&iacute;fica, sea la responsable de la respuesta favorable. Es mucho m&aacute;s probable que esta paciente se hubiera recuperado s&oacute;lo con una terapia de soporte, sin tener que tolerar el efecto da&ntilde;ino adicional de un coma terap&eacute;utico y sin desarrollar efectos adversos.</p>     <p>Se ha proclamado que los pacientes que reciben el protocolo de Milwaukee han logrado sobrevivir m&aacute;s tiempo que aqu&eacute;llos que no lo han recibido (28). Esta comparaci&oacute;n no es adecuada porque, en algunos casos, como ocurri&oacute; con un paciente canadiense anciano, se mantuvo la terapia a pesar de la ausencia prolongada de funci&oacute;n cerebral y el tratamiento paliativo probablemente se inici&oacute; mucho antes en comparaci&oacute;n con el grupo que no recibi&oacute; el protocolo de Milwaukee. En el caso canadiense, en la autopsia se observ&oacute; ausencia total de neuronas corticales e infecci&oacute;n del tallo cerebral y neuronas del cerebelo demostradas por tinci&oacute;n histol&oacute;gica de rutina (presencia de cuerpos de Negri) y reacci&oacute;n positiva mediante la inmunofluorescencia directa (29). A esto no se le puede considerar un avance terap&eacute;utico.</p>     <p>En total, yo tengo conocimiento de, al menos, 14 casos, incluyendo 12 que recopil&eacute; en una revisi&oacute;n reciente, en los cuales se han utilizado los componentes principales del protocolo de Milwaukee, todos con resultados fatales (30-32). Tambi&eacute;n, este protocolo se ha aplicado en casos adicionales (31), y quiz&aacute; en muchos otros, pero los detalles no son conocidos y quiz&aacute; nunca sean reportados.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Aunque no se sabe con claridad por qu&eacute;&nbsp;una ni&ntilde;a norteamericana sobrevivi&oacute; a la rabia en el 2004, este caso abre la posibilidad de que se desarrollen aproximaciones terap&eacute;uticas agresivas m&aacute;s exitosas en el futuro. Infortunadamente, hasta ahora no existe una terapia disponible para la rabia. Es muy dudoso que el protocolo de Milwaukee demuestre ser &uacute;til para el tratamiento de la rabia humana, pero la promoci&oacute;n y repetici&oacute;n de esta terapia puede impedir el progreso en el desarrollo de tratamientos nuevos y efectivos para esta enfermedad. El incremento de los conocimientos de los mecanismos b&aacute;sicos sobre los que se sustenta la patog&eacute;nesis de la rabia en el hombre y los animales, ser&aacute; muy &uacute;til en el futuro para dise&ntilde;ar nuevas alternativas terap&eacute;uticas para el tratamiento de esta antigua enfermedad.</p>     <p>Alan C. Jackson, MD</p>     <p>Departments of Internal Medicine (Neurology) and of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada</p>     <p>* Traducci&oacute;n de Orlando Torres-Fern&aacute;ndez, Comit&eacute;&nbsp;Editorial, <I>Revista Biom&eacute;dica </I>&nbsp;    <BR></p>     <p>Correspondence to: Dr. Alan C. Jackson, Health Sciences Centre, GF-543, 820 Sherbrook Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3A 1R9 Canada. Telephone: 1-204 787-1578; fax: 1-204-787-1486. <a href="mailto:ajackson2@hsc.mb.ca">ajackson2@hsc.mb.ca</a></p>      <p><b>Referencias</b></p>     <p>1. <b>World Health Organization. </b>WHO expert consultation on rabies: first report. Geneva: WHO; 2005.</p>     <p>2. <b>Jackson AC, Warrell MJ, Rupprecht CE, Ertl HC, Dietzschold B, O&#39;Reilly M, <I>et al</I>. </b>Management of rabies in humans. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:60-3.</p>     <p>3. <b>Jackson AC. </b>Human disease. In: Jackson AC, Wunner WH, editors. Rabies. London: Elsevier Academic Press; 2007. p. 309-40.</p>     ]]></body>
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<body><![CDATA[<p>14. <b>Lafon M. </b>Bat rabies--the Achilles heel of a viral killer? Lancet. 2005;366:876-7.</p>     <p>15. <b>Hattwick MA, Weis TT, Stechschulte CJ, Baer GM, Gregg MB. </b>Recovery from rabies: a case report. Ann Intern Med. 1972;76:931-42.</p>     <p>16. <b>Ministerio da Saude in Brazil. </b>Rabies, human survival, bat-Brazil: (Pernambuco). ProMED-mail. 2008; 20081114.3599. [Accessed: May 19, 2009] Available at: <A href="http://www.promedmail.org/pls/otn/f?p=2400:1001:57555::::F2400_P1001_BACK_PAGE,F2400_P1001_ARCHIVE_NUMBER,F2400_P1001_USE_ARCHIVE:1001,20081114.3599,Y"  target=_blank>http://www.promedmail.org/pls/otn/f?p=2400:1001:57555::::F2400_P1001_BACK_PAGE,F2400_P1001_ARCHIVE_NUMBER,F2400_P1001_USE_ARCHIVE:1001,20081114.3599,Y</A></p>     <p>17. <b>Lafon M. </b>Immunology. In: Jackson AC, Wunner WH, editors. Rabies. London: Elsevier Academic Press; 2007. p. 489-504.</p>     <p>18. <b>Jackson AC. </b>Recovery from rabies. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2549-50.</p>     <p>19. <b>Krishnamurthy KB, Drislane FW. </b>Depth of EEG suppression and outcome in barbiturate anesthetic treatment for refractory status epilepticus. Epilepsia. 1999;40:759-62.</p>     <p>20. <b>Bassin S, Smith TL, Bleck TP. </b>Clinical review: status epilepticus. Crit Care. 2002;6:137-42.</p>     <p>21. <b>Nevander G, Ingvar M, Auer R, Siesjo BK. </b>Status epilepticus in well-oxygenated rats causes neuronal necrosis. Ann Neurol. 1985;18:281-90.</p>     <p>22. <b>Meldrum BS, Brierley JB. </b>Prolonged epileptic seizures in primates. Ischemic cell change and its relation to ictal physiological events. Arch Neurol. 1973;28:10-7.</p>     <p>23. <b>Lockhart BP, Tordo N, Tsiang H. </b>Inhibition of rabies virus transcription in rat cortical neurons with the dissociative anesthetic ketamine. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992;36:1750-5.</p>     ]]></body>
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