<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0120-548X</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Acta Biológica Colombiana]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Acta biol.Colomb.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0120-548X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Biología]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0120-548X2011000100001</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[PRODUCCIÓN in vitro DE ANTOCIANINAS - REVISIÓN]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[In Vitro Production of Anthocyanins - A Literature Review]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[GÓMEZ-ZELEDÓN]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[JAVIER]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[JIMÉNEZ]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[VÍCTOR M]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Costa Rica CIGRAS ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[San Pedro ]]></addr-line>
<country>Costa Rica</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>30</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2011</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>30</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2011</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>16</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<fpage>3</fpage>
<lpage>20</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0120-548X2011000100001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0120-548X2011000100001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0120-548X2011000100001&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[La producción de metabolitos secundarios en cultivos celulares de plantas puede ser de interés para obtener compuestos difíciles de sintetizar o aislar de otras fuentes, lo cual generalmente se relaciona con un alto valor económico, aunque también puede ser útil para ayudar a dilucidar las vías metabólicas involucradas en la síntesis de estos compuestos. En este trabajo se presenta una descripción general de las antocianinas, un grupo de pigmentos de gran importancia para la industria, complementada con la referencia de los trabajos científicos recientes que se han publicado sobre la producción in vitro de las mismas. Con relación a esto último, se hace una descripción del efecto de cambios en las condiciones de cultivo, de la adición de precursores, del uso de reguladores de crecimiento, así como de la utilización de inductores y factores de estrés sobre la producción de estos compuestos. Finalmente, se hace mención al uso de raíces en cabellera, en inglés hairy roots, obtenidas mediante el uso de Agrobacterium rhizogenes, para la producción de estos compuestos.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[The production of secondary metabolites in plant cell cultures may be of interest for obtaining compounds that are difficult to synthesize or isolate from other sources, which is usually associated with high economic value of the substances, but may also be useful to help elucidating the metabolic pathways involved in the synthesis of such compounds. This paper presents a general description of anthocyanins, a group of pigments of great importance to the industry, complemented by referring the scientific papers that have been recently published on their in vitro production. Regarding the latter, a description of the effect of changes in growing conditions, of the addition of precursors, of the use of growth regulators, and of the utilization of elicitors and stressors on the production of these compounds, is done. Finally, this review mentions the use of hairy roots obtained by the use of Agrobacterium rhizogenes for the production of these compounds.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[cultivos celulares]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[cultivo de tejidos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[inductores]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[pigmentos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[precursores]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[cell cultures]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[elicitors]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[pigments]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[precursors]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[tissue culture]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <font face="verdana" size="2">      <P align="center"><font size="4"> PRODUCCI&Oacute;N <I>in vitro </I>DE ANTOCIANINAS - REVISI&Oacute;N</font> </P >     <p align="center"    ><I>In Vitro </I>Production of Anthocyanins - A Literature Review </p >     <P   >JAVIER G&Oacute;MEZ-ZELED&Oacute;N<Sup>1</Sup>, B.Sc.; V&Iacute;CTOR M. JIM&Eacute;NEZ<Sup>1</Sup>, Ph.D.; <Sup>1</Sup>CIGRAS, Universidad de Costa Rica, 2060 San Pedro, Costa Rica. Tel&eacute;fono: (506) 2 511 34 30. Fax: (506) 2 511 43 46. <a href="mailto:victor.jimenez@ucr.ac.cr">victor.jimenez@ucr.ac.cr</a> </P >     <P    >Presentado 24 de diciembre de 2009, aceptado 22 de junio de 2010, correcciones 2 de febrero de 2011. </P ><hr size="1">     <p    > RESUMEN  </p >     <P    > La producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios en cultivos celulares de plantas puede ser de inter&eacute;s para obtener compuestos dif&iacute;ciles de sintetizar o aislar de otras fuentes, lo cual generalmente se relaciona con un alto valor econ&oacute;mico, aunque tambi&eacute;n puede ser &uacute;til para ayudar a dilucidar las v&iacute;as metab&oacute;licas involucradas en la s&iacute;ntesis de estos compuestos. En este trabajo se presenta una descripci&oacute;n general de las antocianinas, un grupo de pigmentos de gran importancia para la industria, complementada con la referencia de los trabajos cient&iacute;ficos recientes que se han publicado sobre la producci&oacute;n <I>in vitro </I>de las mismas. Con relaci&oacute;n a esto &uacute;ltimo, se hace una descripci&oacute;n del efecto de cambios en las condiciones de cultivo, de la adici&oacute;n de precursores, del uso de reguladores de crecimiento, as&iacute; como de la utilizaci&oacute;n de inductores y factores de estr&eacute;s sobre la producci&oacute;n de estos compuestos. Finalmente, se hace menci&oacute;n al uso de ra&iacute;ces en cabellera, en ingl&eacute;s <I>hairy roots</I>, obtenidas mediante el uso de <I>Agrobacterium rhizogenes</I>, para la producci&oacute;n de estos compuestos. </P >     <P    > Palabras clave:  cultivos celulares; cultivo de tejidos; inductores; pigmentos; precursores. </P ><hr size="1">     <p    > ABSTRACT  </p >     <P    > The production of secondary metabolites in plant cell cultures may be of interest for obtaining compounds that are difficult to synthesize or isolate from other sources, which is usually associated with high economic value of the substances, but may also be useful to help elucidating the metabolic pathways involved in the synthesis of such compounds. This paper presents a general description of anthocyanins, a group of pigments of great importance to the industry, complemented by referring the scientific papers that have been recently published on their <I>in vitro </I>production. Regarding the latter, a description of the effect of changes in growing conditions, of the addition of precursors, of the use of growth regulators, and of the utilization of elicitors and stressors on the production of these compounds, is done. Finally, this review mentions the use of hairy roots obtained by the use of <I>Agrobacterium rhizogenes </I>for the production of these compounds. </P >     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P    > Key words:  cell cultures; elicitors; pigments; precursors; tissue culture. </P ><hr size="1">     <p    > INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N  </p >     <P   > Los pigmentos, sustancias qu&iacute;micas que dan color, est&aacute;n presentes en pr&aacute;cticamente todos los organismos. El color se produce cuando una mol&eacute;cula espec&iacute;fica (crom&oacute;foro) captura la energ&iacute;a de ciertas longitudes de onda y refleja la energ&iacute;a no absorbida, la cual es recibida por el ojo, generando el impulso nervioso, que en el cerebro es interpretado como un color determinado (Delgado-Vargas <I>et al.</I>, 2000). </P >     <P   >La gran diversidad de colores presente en flores y frutos muestra la importancia ecol&oacute;gica que tienen los pigmentos en la naturaleza. Es bien conocido el hecho de insectos, aves y mam&iacute;feros, en su b&uacute;squeda de una fuente de alimento, se ven atra&iacute;dos hacia las flores gracias a las tonalidades que estas poseen (Chittka y Menzel, 1992; Sumner <I>et al.</I>, 2005). Asimismo, los pigmentos se ven involucrados en la dispersi&oacute;n de frutos al funcionar como atrayentes para los dispersores (Willson y Whelan, 1990). Adem&aacute;s, los pigmentos tambi&eacute;n pueden actuar como sustancias de defensa contra la herbivor&iacute;a (Gronquist <I>et al.</I>, 2001), especialmente en hojas j&oacute;venes (Karageorgou y Manetas, 2006), como protecci&oacute;n contra hongos pat&oacute;genos (Lachman y Hamouz, 2005) y como protecci&oacute;n contra la radiaci&oacute;n ultravioleta (Stafford, 1994).</P >     <P   > Las antocianinas son pigmentos solubles en agua, ampliamente distribuidos en las plantas vasculares. Estos pigmentos son responsables de la mayor&iacute;a de los colores rojos, naranjas y azules de las flores, y se derivan de una rama de la v&iacute;a de los flavonoides (Grotewold, 2006). Las antocianinas poseen un esqueleto de 15 carbonos, con un anillo crom&aacute;tico y otro arom&aacute;tico, y una o m&aacute;s mol&eacute;culas de az&uacute;car adheridas en diferentes posiciones hidroxiladas de la estructura b&aacute;sica. Esto les confiere una infinidad de posibles combinaciones con gluc&oacute;sidos y grupos acil, lo que, junto con la interacci&oacute;n con otras mol&eacute;culas, hace que la gama de colores que se derivan de estas sustancias sea enorme (Delgado-Vargas <I>et al.</I>, 2000). </P >     <P   >A pesar de que en algunos casos ha sido posible observar una correlaci&oacute;n entre el grupo taxon&oacute;mico al que pertenecen las plantas y los patrones de antocianinas (Sharma y Crowden, 1974), esta es una caracter&iacute;stica muy variable, ya que incluso se ha observado que dentro de variedades de una misma especie, los patrones y las concentraciones de los pigmentos presentan gran diversidad (Gao y Mazza, 1995). Por esta raz&oacute;n, no se les considera un car&aacute;cter con mucho valor taxon&oacute;mico (van Wyk <I>et al.</I>, 1997). Las antocianinas est&aacute;n presentes en la gran mayor&iacute;a de plantas, incluyendo algunos musgos y helechos; sin embargo, se encuentran ausentes en algas, hep&aacute;ticas y otras vasculares inferiores (Delgado-Vargas <I>et al.</I>, 2000). S&oacute;lo un peque&ntilde;o grupo de angiospermas (Caryophylalles) no tiene este tipo de pigmentos, pues posee un grupo de pigmentos equivalente, betala&iacute;nas, y nunca se han encontrado ambos pigmentos en una misma planta (Stafford, 1994). Hasta la fecha se han identificado m&aacute;s de 600 compuestos qu&iacute;micos catalogados como antocianinas, considerados de particular inter&eacute;s para la industria de colorantes para alimentos (Konczak y Zhang, 2004; Sajilata y Singhal, 2006). Este inter&eacute;s ha ido en aumento (Zhang y Furusaki, 1999), tanto por su alta capacidad antioxidante (Kong <I>et al.</I>, 2003; Prior, 2003; Einbond <I>et al.</I>, 2004), como por su capacidad para eliminar radicales libres (Wang <I>et al.</I>, 1997; Esp&iacute;n <I>et al.</I>, 2000), teniendo as&iacute; efectos ben&eacute;ficos m&uacute;ltiples sobre la salud, atribuy&eacute;ndoseles incluso propiedades anti-cancer&iacute;genas (Satu&eacute;-Gracia <I>et al.</I>, 1997; Stintzing y Carle, 2004; Zhao <I>et al.</I>, 2004). </P >     <P   >Los cultivos celulares <I>in vitro </I>son capaces de producir y acumular muchos metabolitos secundarios con valor medicinal o nutricional. Los compuestos medicinales han tenido una especial atenci&oacute;n y se han dedicado grandes esfuerzos para obtener gran variedad de ellos. Una gran cantidad de alcaloides, saponinas, carden&oacute;lidos, antraquinonas, polifenoles y terpenos han sido producidos a partir de cultivos vegetales <I>in vitro</I>. Tambi&eacute;n se ha desarrollado una gran cantidad de m&eacute;todos para la producci&oacute;n <I>in vitro </I>de compuestos antioxidantes, entre los que destacan las antocianinas (Matkowski, 2008). Estos pigmentos tienen un alto potencial, tanto para el reemplazo de colorantes sint&eacute;ticos en alimentos, como para su uso en productos farmac&eacute;uticos y cosm&eacute;ticos (Chattopadhyay <I>et al.</I>, 2008; Garz&oacute;n, 2008). La identificaci&oacute;n de secuencias promotoras, genes reguladores y factores de transcripci&oacute;n para los genes involucrados en la bios&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas ha facilitado, en gran medida, la producci&oacute;n <I>in vitro </I>de las mismas (Holton y Cornish, 1995; Mano <I>et al.</I>, 2007; Shimada <I>et al.</I>, 2007; Allan <I>et al.</I>, 2008; Zhou <I>et al.</I>, 2008; Streisfeld y Rausher, 2009). De esta manera, la aplicaci&oacute;n biotecnolog&iacute;a en la producci&oacute;n de pigmentos surge como una propuesta interesante a nivel industrial, ya que permitir&iacute;a eliminar las desventajas de la estacionalidad, las variaciones geogr&aacute;ficas y anuales en los cultivos, y las fluctuaciones en los rendimientos debido a enfermedades o plagas, que surgen al cultivar las plantas en campo (Konczak <I>et al.</I>, 2005). </P >     <P   >A continuaci&oacute;n se presenta una breve descripci&oacute;n de algunos de los m&eacute;todos utilizados para la producci&oacute;n <I>in vitro </I>de antocianinas, compuestos que, como se indic&oacute; antes, adquieren cada d&iacute;a mayor importancia, debido a sus m&uacute;ltiples aplicaciones. En esta revisi&oacute;n bibliogr&aacute;fica se busca presentar una actualizaci&oacute;n a la &uacute;ltima revisi&oacute;n espec&iacute;fica conocida por los autores sobre el tema, que fue publicada hace m&aacute;s de diez a&ntilde;os (Zhang y Furusaki, 1999). &Uacute;nicamente se citan trabajos anteriores al a&ntilde;o 1999 cuando estos no fueron citados en la revisi&oacute;n mencionada, o cuando se consider&oacute; relevante su alusi&oacute;n para explicar un proceso o idea en particular. Este tema tambi&eacute;n ha sido revisado recientemente, aunque no con tanto detalle, en un trabajo sobre la producci&oacute;n <I>in vitro </I>de metabolitos secundarios (Matkowski, 2008). Tambi&eacute;n se public&oacute; una revisi&oacute;n enfocada espec&iacute;ficamente en <I>Catharanthus roseus </I>(Piovan y Filippini, 2007). </P >     <p   > GENERALIDADES  </p >     <P   > La producci&oacute;n <I>in vitro </I>de metabolitos secundarios en tejidos vegetales se ha estudiado con gran detalle debido al gran potencial que tiene. Sin embargo, se han encontrado muchas limitaciones en el proceso, ya que, en comparaci&oacute;n con microorganismos, las c&eacute;lulas vegetales requieren de m&aacute;s espacio, mayor tiempo para crecer y multiplicarse, as&iacute; como el hecho de que algunas de sus rutas metab&oacute;licas para la producci&oacute;n de muchos metabolitos no se conocen en detalle. Paralelamente, en muchas ocasiones ocurre que determinados compuestos se producen solo en un tipo de c&eacute;lulas. El desarrollo de cultivos celulares ha sido de gran ayuda en este campo, ya que estos poseen tasas metab&oacute;licas m&aacute;s altas que las de muchas c&eacute;lulas diferenciadas de una planta intacta, lo que ha hecho posible el desarrollo de m&eacute;todos de cultivo <I>in vitro </I>espec&iacute;ficos para la producci&oacute;n de sustancias de inter&eacute;s (D&ouml;rnenburg y Knorr, 1995). </P >     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P   >En los estudios sobre rutas metab&oacute;licas tradicionalmente se han utilizado callos con poco grado de diferenciaci&oacute;n. Sin embargo, se ha observado que las suspensiones celulares permiten la recuperaci&oacute;n de grandes cantidades de c&eacute;lulas, siendo as&iacute; posible aislar los compuestos de inter&eacute;s m&aacute;s f&aacute;cilmente. Muchas veces, los cultivos celulares no producen el compuesto que se busca, o bien, lo producen en bajas cantidades, lo que dificulta la aplicaci&oacute;n del proceso a nivel industrial. Esto ha llevado a la b&uacute;squeda de m&eacute;todos que induzcan una mayor producci&oacute;n de determinados metabolitos en los cultivos, y entre los m&aacute;s frecuentes y exitosos, est&aacute; el uso de inductores, como se ver&aacute; m&aacute;s adelante (Bourgaud <I>et al.</I>, 2001). Avances en la producci&oacute;n de tejidos transg&eacute;nicos han tenido gran importancia, y han redireccionado en cierta medida el cultivo <I>in vitro </I>con fines de producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios, ya que al manipular gen&eacute;ticamente las v&iacute;as metab&oacute;licas de las c&eacute;lulas, es posible dirigirlas hacia la producci&oacute;n de compuestos de inter&eacute;s (Rao y Ravishankar, 2002).</P >     <P   > Muchos de los compuestos producidos por c&eacute;lulas vegetales se almacenan en vacuolas. Para poder tener acceso a estos, es necesario penetrar la barrera de ambas membranas, la de la vacuola, y la de la c&eacute;lula. La permeabilizaci&oacute;n de membranas es el m&eacute;todo m&aacute;s com&uacute;n para lograr que las c&eacute;lulas liberen estos metabolitos secundarios, y se logra formando poros en las mismas. El objetivo principal de esta t&eacute;cnica es permitir que las c&eacute;lulas liberen las sustancias de inter&eacute;s almacenadas en su interior, manteniendo su viabilidad (Rao y Ravishankar, 2002). Se han probado varios tratamientos para permeabilizar c&eacute;lulas y as&iacute; liberar pigmentos, en donde se altera pH, o se sonica, se somete a estr&eacute;s t&eacute;rmico y/o estr&eacute;s por reducci&oacute;n de ox&iacute;geno, entre otros. Muchas veces el &eacute;xito de estas t&eacute;cnicas es bajo, ya que se recobra poco producto despu&eacute;s de aplicarlas, y tambi&eacute;n debido a que las c&eacute;lulas pierden o reducen su viabilidad (Thimmaraju <I>et al.</I>, 2003). Una alternativa para reducir esta p&eacute;rdida de viabilidad, que ha funcionado para antocianinas, es el uso concentraciones altas de calcio despu&eacute;s de un tratamiento t&eacute;rmico para la liberaci&oacute;n del pigmento (Takeda <I>et al.</I>, 2003). </P >     <P   >La producci&oacute;n de antocianinas <I>in vitro </I>ha sido reportada en un gran n&uacute;mero de especies y utilizando distintos m&eacute;todos de cultivo. En la <a href="#tabla1">Tabla 1</a> se presentan los trabajos publicados a partir de 1999 en el tema, o bien trabajos anteriores que no fueron incluidos en la revisi&oacute;n anterior sobre este t&oacute;pico (Zhang y Furusaki, 1999). </P >    <p>    <center><a name="tabla1"></a><img src="img/revistas/abc/v16n1/v16n1a1t1.jpg"></center></p>     <p   > VARIACI&Oacute;N DE LAS CONDICIONES DE CULTIVO  </p >     <P   > La producci&oacute;n de antocianinas se encuentra ligada a las condiciones lum&iacute;nicas en que las plantas se desarrollan <I>in vitro </I>(Toguri <I>et al.</I>, 1993). Se ha observado que los genes que codifican para las enzimas claves en la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas en <I>Stellaria longipes </I>requieren est&iacute;mulo lum&iacute;nico para su expresi&oacute;n (Alokam <I>et al.</I>, 2002). Estudios <I>in vitro </I>con <I>Ceratonia siliqua </I>revelaron que en condiciones de baja luminosidad, e incluso en oscuridad, se di&oacute; la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas (Vinterhalter <I>et al.</I>, 2007). </P >     <P   >Adem&aacute;s de la intensidad lum&iacute;nica, la calidad de la luz juega tambi&eacute;n un papel importante en la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas. Estudios <I>in vitro </I>con corolas de <I>Petunia hybrida </I>demostraron que distintas longitudes de onda (rojo, verde, azul, rojo lejano) tienen efectos diferentes sobre la producci&oacute;n de estos pigmentos en flores, siendo m&aacute;s efectiva la azul (Weiss y Halevy, 1991). Irradiando plantas de <I>Brassica rapa </I>con luz de distintas longitudes de onda (rojo lejano, rojo, azul, UV-A, UV-B bajo, UV-B alto, UVA + rojo lejano, UV-A + rojo, UV-A + azul) se pudo monitorear el comportamiento de las mismas ante este tipo de est&iacute;mulo. Las plantas que estuvieron por 24 horas en presencia de luz UV-A fueron las que presentaron la mayor concentraci&oacute;n de anto cianinas en sus tejidos, cuatro veces m&aacute;s que plantas mantenidas en oscuridad. La combinaci&oacute;n de otros tipos de luz con UV-A estimul&oacute; en menor grado la producci&oacute;n de pigmentos o no present&oacute; diferencias significativas que cuando se utiliz&oacute; s&oacute;lo luz UV-A. </P >     <P   >Tambi&eacute;n se observ&oacute; un aumento en la expresi&oacute;n de varios de los genes involucrados en la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas (fenilalanina amonio liasa, chalcona sintasa, flavanona 3hidroxilasa, dihidroflavonol 4-reductasa y antocianidina sintasa) al someter plantas a este tipo de radiaci&oacute;n (Zhou <I>et al.</I>, 2007). </P >     <P   >La temperatura es otra de las condiciones de cultivo que afecta la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas. Shvarts <I>et al.</I>, 1997, determinaron que condiciones de temperatura moderadamente baja pod&iacute;an aumentar la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas en petunia, incrementando la expresi&oacute;n de genes que codifican para las enzimas que participan en su s&iacute;ntesis. De igual manera, en un estudio con h&iacute;bridos de <I>Aster</I>, se observ&oacute; la misma tendencia, ya que las corolas de las flores de estas plantas presentaban la mitad de la concentraci&oacute;n normal de antocianinas a temperatura promedio de 13 &deg;C que al ser cultivadas a temperaturas mayores (en promedio 25 &deg;C). Sin embargo, se encontr&oacute; que aumentando los niveles de magnesio en estas plantas era posible evitar el efecto de la temperatura sobre la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas, aumentando la concentraci&oacute;n de las mismas en las flores (Shaked-Sachray <I>et al.</I>, 2002). En rosa cultivada en invernadero se ha encontrado que los efectos de temperaturas elevadas se observan principalmente en los nuevos brotes, cuando son expuestos a las mismas desde etapas tempranas de su desarrollo. Incluso, se pudo cons-tatar que la proporci&oacute;n en la que se encuentran distintas antocianinas en la planta cambia dr&aacute;sticamente al ser cultivadas a altas temperaturas (Dela <I>et al.</I>, 2003). Un efecto combinado de luz, temperatura y diversos componentes del medio de cultivo en la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas fue observado en callos de <I>Cleome rosea</I>, una planta ornamental brasile&ntilde;a. En este caso, Sim&otilde;es <I>et al.</I>, 2009, encontraron que la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas fue mayor al reducir la temperatura y aumentar la radiaci&oacute;n lum&iacute;nica. </P >     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p   > ADICI&Oacute;N DE PRECURSORES  </p >     <P   > Muchas veces sucede que la producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios no sigue el mismo patr&oacute;n en cultivos <I>in vitro </I>que en plantas intactas cultivadas <I>ex vitro</I>. Esto puede deberse a la falta de los est&iacute;mulos necesarios, a un desacople de la maquinaria enzim&aacute;tica, o a una expresi&oacute;n insuficiente de los genes relacionados con la bios&iacute;ntesis. Sin embargo, considerando que las enzimas que participan en la s&iacute;ntesis est&aacute;n presentes, la adici&oacute;n ex&oacute;gena de precursores puede ayudar a solucionar el problema (Matkowski, 2008). </P >     <P   >En el caso espec&iacute;fico de las antocianinas, se ha estudiado el comportamiento de cultivos celulares en presencia de su precursor, fenilalanina. Al agregarlo al medio, se ha visto c&oacute;mo la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas en cultivos celulares de <I>Vitis vinifera </I>se incrementa de forma significativa (Krisa <I>et al.</I>, 1999). Tambi&eacute;n se ha observado que fenilalanina puede actuar como un inductor de transcripci&oacute;n de genes que codifican para enzimas involucradas en la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas, como chalcona sintasa, en esta misma especie (Kakegawa <I>et al.</I>, 1995). La adici&oacute;n fraccionada de concentraciones bajas de fenilalanina mostr&oacute; ser m&aacute;s efectiva para la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas en cultivos celulares de fresa (<I>Fragaria ananassa</I>) que cuando se adicion&oacute; una cantidad mayor &uacute;nicamente al momento del establecimiento (Edahiro <I>et al.</I>, 2005). </P >     <P   >Adem&aacute;s, se ha visto que la adici&oacute;n de &aacute;cidos carbox&iacute;licos al medio de cultivo causa cambios en los patrones de antocianinas en cultivos celulares de zanahoria silvestre (<I>Daucus carota </I>spp. <I>carota</I>) a causa de acilaci&oacute;n, form&aacute;ndose compuestos con colores m&aacute;s estables (Dougall <I>et al.</I>, 1998). Los &aacute;cidos carbox&iacute;licos se estar&iacute;an uniendo al az&uacute;car de la antocianina y actuando, por lo tanto, como una especie de precursor de las nuevas antocianinas formadas. </P >     <p   > USO DE REGULADORES DE CRECIMIENTO  </p >     <P   > Los reguladores de crecimiento juegan un papel importante en el desarrollo de plantas, determinando patrones de crecimiento, desarrollo de &oacute;rganos, arquitectura de la planta y diferenciaci&oacute;n celular (Gaspar <I>et al.</I>, 2003). Dado el amplio rango de efectos de los reguladores de crecimiento sobre las plantas, se ha investigado tambi&eacute;n la participaci&oacute;n que estos tienen sobre la producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios en cultivos celulares. Ozeki y Komamine, 1986, utilizando cultivos celulares de zanahoria, lograron identificar el efecto inhibidor de auxinas, principalmente del &aacute;cido 2,4-diclorofenoxiac&eacute;tico (2,4-D), sobre la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas. Al a&ntilde;adir 2,4-D a cultivos celulares productores de antocianinas que hab&iacute;an cesado su crecimiento, se logr&oacute; activar de nuevo la divisi&oacute;n celular, pero inmediatamente desapareci&oacute; la acumulaci&oacute;n de antocianinas. En concordancia, cultivos de camote comenzaron a sintetizar antocianinas cuando fueron transferidos a medio desprovisto de 2,4-D (Nozue <I>et al.</I>, 1993). El &aacute;cido giber&eacute;lico (AG3) y el &aacute;cido absc&iacute;sico tambi&eacute;n mostraron tener un efecto inhibidor, similar al de auxinas. Para el caso de citoquininas, la respuesta fue distinta, ya que todas las que se evaluaron (zeatina, kinetina, isopentenil adenosina, benciladenina [BAP] y 4 piridilfenilurea) promovieron un aumento en la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas en cultivos de zanahoria (Ozeki y Komamine, 1986). Contrario a los resultados anteriores, Mizukami <I>et al.</I>, 1988, observaron un incremento en la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas, sumado a un aumento en el crecimiento, en callos de <I>Hibiscus sudariffa</I>, utilizando 1 &micro;M de 2,4-D. La combinaci&oacute;n de esta auxina con kinetina tambi&eacute;n estimul&oacute;, en esta especie, la s&iacute;ntesis de estos pigmentos en mayor grado que s&oacute;lo con auxina. El AG3, por otra parte, se comport&oacute; de la misma manera que en zanahoria, ya que demostr&oacute; tener tambi&eacute;n, un efecto inhibidor sobre la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas en <I>Hibiscus sudariffa </I>(Mizukami <I>et al.</I>, 1988). </P >     <P   >Se observ&oacute; producci&oacute;n de antocianinas en suspensiones celulares de fresa (<I>Fragaria ananassa </I>cv. Shikinari) cultivadas en medio LS (Linsmaier y Skoog, 1965) desprovisto de reguladores de crecimiento. Sin embargo, al agregar 2,4-D o BAP se logr&oacute; aumentar la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas, y al utilizar estos reguladores en combinaci&oacute;n, se lleg&oacute; a tener un aumento de siete veces la producci&oacute;n del pigmento obtenida en el medio libre de reguladores (Mori <I>et al.</I>, 1994). </P >     <P   >Callos de <I>Oxalis linearis </I>presentaron una reducci&oacute;n en la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas al agregarse &aacute;cido naftalenac&eacute;tico al medio, en concentraciones de 8-32 &micro;M. Al utilizar 2,4-D en concentraciones bajas (2 &micro;M) se document&oacute; la mayor producci&oacute;n de los pigmentos y, utilizando concentraciones altas, el efecto se volvi&oacute; inhibitorio. En este estudio, las citoquininas (zeatina, tidiazuron y BAP) tambi&eacute;n resultaron tener un efecto inductor sobre la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas, al ser utilizadas a una concentraci&oacute;n de 8 &micro;M, en combinaci&oacute;n con la misma concentraci&oacute;n de 2,4-D (Meyer y van Staden, 1995). </P >     <P   >Utilizando kinetina en el medio de cultivo de suspensiones celulares de <I>Vaccinium phalae </I>se logr&oacute; inducir la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas. Sin embargo, despu&eacute;s de m&uacute;ltiples subcultivos en este medio, las c&eacute;lulas perdieron o disminuyeron su capacidad de producir estos pigmentos. Al sustituir kinetina por BAP se logr&oacute;, de nuevo, inducir la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas, e incluso se lleg&oacute; a tener un aumento de tres veces en la producci&oacute;n total de las mismas, y una producci&oacute;n m&aacute;s temprana en el ciclo de cultivo de estas suspensiones. Este aumento en la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas al utilizar BAP, a diferencia de otros sistemas de producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios, no se dio a expensas del crecimiento celular, ya que este tambi&eacute;n se vio incrementado al usar esta citoquinina (Fang <I>et al.</I>, 1998). Sin embargo, la respuesta puede depender de la especie, como se observ&oacute; en <I>Campotheca acuminata</I>, usando estos mismos reguladores, ya que la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas que se obtuvo utilizando kinetina, fue significativamente mayor que cuando se utiliz&oacute; BAP. En este estudio tambi&eacute;n se encontr&oacute; un efecto positivo sobre la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas al utilizar 2,4-D, como se hab&iacute;a informado anteriormente en otras especies y al combinarlo con kinetina se lleg&oacute; a obtener la concentraci&oacute;n m&aacute;s alta de estos pigmentos (Pasqua <I>et al.</I>, 2005). A pesar de esto, el 2,4-D tambi&eacute;n present&oacute; efectos represivos sobre la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas en cultivos celulares de <I>Vitis </I>sp. (Yamakawa <I>et al.</I>, 1983). Por ello no es posible establecer una tendencia general clara de la respuesta ante los distintos reguladores de crecimiento. </P >     <p   > USO DE INDUCTORES Y FACTORES DE ESTR&Eacute;S  </p >     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P   > El t&eacute;rmino inductor, en ingl&eacute;s <I>elicitor</I>, hace referencia a una mol&eacute;cula o un est&iacute;mulo que induce la s&iacute;ntesis y la acumulaci&oacute;n de sustancias, que por lo general tienen efectos antimicrobianos o antiestr&eacute;s en c&eacute;lulas vegetales. Las plantas, como organismos s&eacute;siles, se valen de este tipo de mecanismos para responder ante el estr&eacute;s causado por agentes pat&oacute;genos, de los cuales no pueden escapar (Yoshikawa <I>et al.</I>, 1993). Gran parte de la investigaci&oacute;n sobre este tema se ha concentrado en dilucidar este tipo de mecanismo de defensa de las plantas, desde la percepci&oacute;n de la se&ntilde;al, hasta la cadena de eventos que se derivan y su respectiva regulaci&oacute;n (Hahn, 1996). Estrechamente relacionada con esta respuesta de la planta ante condiciones de estr&eacute;s, est&aacute; la producci&oacute;n y acumulaci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios, que viene dada por uno o varios est&iacute;mulos que funcionan como inductores. Los mecanismos que perciben y regulan este tipo de se&ntilde;ales son complejos, y su comprensi&oacute;n es de suma importancia para la optimizaci&oacute;n y producci&oacute;n comercial de metabolitos secundarios (Zhao <I>et al.</I>, 2005). </P >     <P   >La producci&oacute;n <I>in vitro </I>de antocianinas puede ser potencializada utilizando inductores y factores de estr&eacute;s. Dada la conocida actividad antimicrobiana de estos pigmentos (Lachman y Hamouz, 2005; Zhao <I>et al.</I>, 2009), se han utilizado cultivos f&uacute;ngicos como inductores para promover su s&iacute;ntesis en varias plantas. En callos <I>in vitro </I>de <I>Daucus carota </I>se utilizaron extractos de cultivos de <I>Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium notatum </I>y <I>Fusarium oxysporum</I>, as&iacute; como filtrados de los medios en que crec&iacute;an estos hongos. La respuesta de los cultivos fue distinta ante cada hongo, y en los tratamientos con <I>A. flavus </I>se logr&oacute; aumentar al doble la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas. En el filtrado del medio de este hongo tambi&eacute;n se logr&oacute; detectar un aumento en la concentraci&oacute;n de estos pigmentos, aunque no tan alto como con el extracto del hongo (Rajendran <I>et al.</I>, 1994). En estudios posteriores con inductores f&uacute;ngicos se observ&oacute; c&oacute;mo el calcio jug&oacute; un papel preponderante en lo que se refiere a la respuesta de c&eacute;lulas vegetales a estas sustancias. Al aumentar los niveles de calcio en el medio, en presencia del inductor f&uacute;ngico, los callos de <I>D. carota </I>produjeron mayor cantidad de antocianinas, que los que ten&iacute;an calcio en proporciones normales. Al usar sustancias que bloquean los canales de sodio en estos callos se observ&oacute; una producci&oacute;n disminuida de antocianinas y reducci&oacute;n en el crecimiento, comprob&aacute;ndose que el calcio es pieza clave en la respuesta a este tipo de inductores f&uacute;ngicos (Sudha y Ravishankar, 2003a). </P >     <P   >En estudios similares con <I>D. carota</I>, utilizando extractos celulares y filtrados del cultivo de bacterias y levaduras, se ha observado que la respuesta de los callos var&iacute;a de acuerdo con la bacteria o levadura utilizada y con la concentraci&oacute;n final del inductor en el medio. Se pudo determinar que para estos callos los extractos de la levadura <I>Rhodotorula rubra </I>fueron los que dieron mejores resultados, aumentando al doble la concentraci&oacute;n de antocianinas en los cultivos. En este mismo estudio se prob&oacute; el efecto de distintos metales (Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Co y V) sobre la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas en los callos y se observ&oacute; que el calcio era el que ten&iacute;a el mejor efecto (Suvarnalatha <I>et al.</I>, 1994). </P >     <P   >Adem&aacute;s del uso de organismos patog&eacute;nicos como inductores en la producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios, se han utilizado tambi&eacute;n extractos de algas, como en el caso de <I>Spirulina platensis</I>, un tipo de cianobacteria, usada en la industria como suplemento alimenticio por su alto valor nutricional. Esta cianobacteria contiene un pigmento azul, conocido como ficocianina, dentro del complejo de captaci&oacute;n de luz t&iacute;pico de las llamadas com&uacute;nmente algas verde-azuladas. Este pigmento fue utilizado en callos de <I>D. carota </I>para aumentar la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas en callos pigmentados. Se probaron distintas concentraciones del inductor y se lleg&oacute; a obtener un aumento del doble de la producci&oacute;n de estos pigmentos en callos (Rao <I>et al.</I>, 1996). </P >     <P   >Los az&uacute;cares poseen la capacidad de actuar como mol&eacute;culas de se&ntilde;alizaci&oacute;n y su concentraci&oacute;n en un tejido puede llevar a activar o desactivar determinados genes. Por lo tanto su capacidad de actuar como inductores para la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas tambi&eacute;n ha sido estudiada. Utilizando <I>Arabidopsis thaliana</I>, se demostr&oacute; regulaci&oacute;n positiva espec&iacute;fica de sacarosa, independiente del efecto osm&oacute;tico que pudiera tener, sobre la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas (Solfanelli <I>et al.</I>, 2006). Sin embargo, en <I>Ceratonia siliqua </I>se encontr&oacute; que el efecto positivo de la concentraci&oacute;n de az&uacute;cares en el medio sobre la cantidad de antocianinas producidas fue m&aacute;s bien de naturaleza osm&oacute;tica (Vinterhalter <I>et al.</I>, 2007). Un aumento en la s&iacute;ntesis de antocianinas fue observado por Sudha y Ravishankar, 2003b, al cultivar callos de <I>Daucus carota </I>en presencia de metil jasmonato y &aacute;cido salic&iacute;lico, sustancias relacionadas con la respuesta a estr&eacute;s y la activaci&oacute;n de mecanismos de defensa en plantas, respectivamente. </P >     <P   >A pesar de que el pH es un factor cr&iacute;tico en el cultivo <I>in vitro </I>de plantas, se le ha dado poca importancia en el estudio de la producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios. Sin embargo, en un estudio con fresa (<I>Fragaria ananassa</I>), se descubri&oacute; el potencial de este factor en la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas. Al aumentar el pH en cultivos de suspensiones celulares se obtuvo mayor pigmentaci&oacute;n en las c&eacute;lulas. Cuando se utiliz&oacute; un pH de 8,7 la concentraci&oacute;n de antocianinas alcanz&oacute; su m&aacute;ximo a los nueve d&iacute;as de cultivo. Sin embargo, en los d&iacute;as subsiguientes la concentraci&oacute;n de antocianinas disminuy&oacute; debido a la lisis y la muerte de muchas c&eacute;lulas (Zhang y Furusaki, 1997). </P >     <P   >La adici&oacute;n de medio de cultivo condicionado con el filtrado de medio en el que estaban creciendo cultivos celulares de <I>Fragaria ananassa </I>productores de antocianinas, logr&oacute; inducir la producci&oacute;n de este pigmento en cultivos celulares de <I>Rosa hybrida </I>que normalmente no lo produc&iacute;an. Este es un indicio, de que cultivos en los que se est&aacute;n produciendo antocianinas podr&iacute;an liberar al medio sustancias que act&uacute;en como inductores (Sakurai <I>et al.</I>, 1997). El &oacute;xido nitroso puede llegar a ser una sustancia muy da&ntilde;ina para plantas, dado su efecto inhibidor sobre la fotos&iacute;ntesis. A pesar de esto, se pudo observar que al exponer discos de hojas de <I>Pisum sativum </I>a nitroprusiato de sodio, una sustancia productora de &oacute;xido nitroso, en presencia de luz, se dio una acumulaci&oacute;n de antocianinas, que coincidi&oacute; con una reducci&oacute;n dr&aacute;stica de la fotos&iacute;ntesis de estas hojas (Ganjewala <I>et al.</I>, 2008). </P >     <p   > TRANSFORMACI&Oacute;N CON <I>Agrobacterium rhizogenes </I> </p >     <P   > El uso de cultivos celulares indiferenciados (callos) para la producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios tiene la gran limitante de que estos cultivos pueden ser gen&eacute;tica o epigen&eacute;ticamente inestables, y adem&aacute;s tienden a tener rendimientos bajos. Un m&eacute;todo alternativo ha sido la generaci&oacute;n <I>in vitro </I>de ra&iacute;ces en cabellera, en ingl&eacute;s <I>hairy roots</I>, utilizando <I>Agrobacterium rhizogenes</I>. Este m&eacute;todo ha resultado muy prometedor, dada la estabilidad gen&eacute;tica y bioqu&iacute;mica de estas ra&iacute;ces, as&iacute; como el crecimiento r&aacute;pido que presentan (Giri y Narasu, 2000). </P >     <P   >La producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios <I>in vitro </I>cobra mayor importancia cuando la especie de la que estos se podr&iacute;an extraer est&aacute; en peligro de extinci&oacute;n, y no puede ser recolectada en condiciones silvestres pues est&aacute; bajo alg&uacute;n sistema de protecci&oacute;n. Este es el caso de <I>Leontopodium alpinum</I>, de la familia Asteraceae, pues es muy escasa, y para realizar estudios fitoqu&iacute;micos con ella fue necesario recurrir a la producci&oacute;n <I>in vitro </I>de ra&iacute;ces en cabellera. En estos cultivos se report&oacute; la presencia de antocianinas, la cual se vio aumentada en forma considerable (en un 70%) cuando se pusieron a crecer en un medio con 0,5 mg/L de BAP (Hook, 1994). </P >     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P   >Explantes de hoja de <I>Ipomea batatas </I>cv. Ayamurasaki transformados con <I>A. rhizogenes </I>A13 produjeron antocianinas, con una tendencia a incrementar la concentraci&oacute;n del pigmento conforme se aumentaba la concentraci&oacute;n de sacarosa en el medio (Nishiyama y Yamakawa, 2004). Tambi&eacute;n se ha determinado que el medio PRL-4C (Gamborg, 1966) favoreci&oacute; la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas en estos cultivos. En la oscuridad se ha visto que tambi&eacute;n se produce el pigmento, pero s&oacute;lo utilizando mayor concentraci&oacute;n de az&uacute;car, y no en la misma concentraci&oacute;n que en los cultivos expuestos a la luz. Adem&aacute;s, se ha podido determinar que cultivos de ra&iacute;ces en cabellera producen mayor cantidad de pigmento en medio s&oacute;lido PRL-4C expuestos a la luz que en medio l&iacute;quido PRL-4C y en oscuridad. Esta es una evidencia adicional de la importancia de la selecci&oacute;n del medio y las condiciones de cultivo para la producci&oacute;n de antocianinas (Nishiyama y Yamakawa, 2004). </P >     <P   >En cultivos de ra&iacute;ces en cabellera de <I>Lobelia chinensis</I>, una campanul&aacute;cea medicinal del este asi&aacute;tico, expuestos a luz, se encontr&oacute; la presencia de las antocianinas cianidin 3-O-gluc&oacute;sido y cianidin-3-0-rutin&iacute;sido. La producci&oacute;n de estos pigmentos en los cultivos se vio favorecida en los medios Gamborg B5 (B5) y en root culture (RC), medios con una relaci&oacute;n alta de NO3-/Np+, y en los cuales tambi&eacute;n se hab&iacute;a reportado anteriormente buen rendimiento en la producci&oacute;n de clorofila (Tada <I>et al.</I>, 1996). </P >     <p    > CONCLUSIONES  </p >     <P   > A pesar de que los cultivos celulares de origen vegetal pueden producir gran cantidad de metabolitos secundarios, la producci&oacute;n comercial de los mismos aun es un reto. La falta de conocimiento de las v&iacute;as metab&oacute;licas de muchos de los procesos enzim&aacute;ticos es la barrera m&aacute;s importante que est&aacute; impidiendo el desarrollo comercial en la producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios in vitro. Tambi&eacute;n se han mencionado algunos problemas t&eacute;cnicos y biol&oacute;gicos intr&iacute;nsecos de c&eacute;lulas vegetales, como su gran tama&ntilde;o si se les compara con microorganismos, su alta sensibilidad a la agitaci&oacute;n y su baja tasa de crecimiento, que son responsables de la poca cantidad de procesos industriales en los que se utilizan para la producci&oacute;n de metabolitos secundarios (D&ouml;rnenburg y Knorr, 1995).</P >     <P   > En el caso de las antocianinas, existen incluso residuos vegetales de los cuales se pueden extraer estos compuestos a un costo muy bajo, como por ejemplo de la vid (Kammerer <I>et al.</I>, 2004). Lo anterior hace que el uso de cultivos <I>in vitro </I>como fuente de este tipo de pigmentos no sea actualmente una alternativa econ&oacute;micamente viable. Sin embargo, los altos rendimientos de producci&oacute;n de antocianinas obtenidos en varios trabajos, hacen pensar que el escalamiento de estos procesos, para llevarlos a nivel industrial, es posible (Rao y Ravishankar, 2002). </P >     <p    > AGRADECIMIENTOS  </p >     <P   > A CIGRAS, Universidad de Costa Rica. </P >     <p    > BIBLIOGRAF&Iacute;A  </p >     <!-- ref --><P   > ABE Y, SAWADA A, MOMOSE T, SASAKI N, KAWAHARA N, KAMAKURA H, <I>et al. </I>Structure of an anthocyanin-anthocyanin dimer molecule in anthocyanin-producing cells of a carrot suspension culture. Tetrahedron Lett. 2008;49(51):7330-7333. </P >     &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000061&pid=S0120-548X201100010000100001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><P   >ALLAN AC, HELLENS RP, LAING WA. 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