<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0120-548X</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Acta Biológica Colombiana]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Acta biol.Colomb.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0120-548X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Biología]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0120-548X2011000300009</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[IDENTIFICACIÓN DE FACTORES GENÉTICOS EN LA ETIOLOGÍA DE LA ESQUIZOFRENIA]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Identification of Genetic Factors in the Etiology of Schizophrenia]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[AGUILAR-VALLES]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[ARGEL]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,McGill University Douglas Mental Health University Institute ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Montreal Québec]]></addr-line>
<country>Canadá</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>31</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2011</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>31</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2011</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>16</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<fpage>129</fpage>
<lpage>138</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0120-548X2011000300009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0120-548X2011000300009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0120-548X2011000300009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Esquizofrenia es un trastorno mental que afecta aproximadamente 1% de la población mundial. Está caracterizada por episodios psicóticos, en los cuales los individuos presentan alucinaciones y/o delirios. A su vez, este trastorno involucra un fuerte componente de disfunción social, falta de motivación y deficiencias cognitivas profundas. Las causas de este trastorno se desconocen a ciencia cierta, aunque la evidencia acumulada indica que surge por alteraciones en el desarrollo del sistema nervioso central. Entre los factores que incrementan el riesgo a desarrollar este trastorno se encuentran varios elementos del ambiente incluyendo, infecciones y malnutrición prenatal, así como complicaciones durante el parto. Sin embargo, estudios detallados han corroborado la existencia de factores genéticos involucrados en el desarrollo de esquizofrenia y señalan a estos como los factores más importantes que parecen determinar la aparición de la enfermedad. A pesar de esto, la identificación de genes involucrados en el desarrollo de esta enfermedad ha resultado ser una de las tareas más difíciles que enfrentan la genética y la genómica. El desarrollo de técnicas modernas para el estudio del genoma humano ha permitido estudiar de forma sistemática las variaciones en la secuencia y estructura del genoma que dan lugar a esquizofrenia, permitiendo la identificación de cientos de genes, que pueden estar involucrados en el desarrollo de la enfermedad. Además, se ha sugerido que muchos de estos genes están involucrados en varias enfermedades mentales que en la actualidad se diagnostican como trastornos diferentes, pero cuyo substrato biológico pudiera ser similar.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that affects approximately 1% of the worldwide population. It is characterized by psychotic episodes in which individuals have hallucinations or delusions. This disorder also involves a strong element of social dysfunction, lack of motivation and profound cognitive deficits. The causes of this disorder remain largely unknown, but evidence indicates that arises from changes in the development of the central nervous system. Among the identified risk factors for this disorder are several environmental events, including prenatal infections and malnutrition, and complications during childbirth. However, the most important factor seems to be genetics. Despite this, the identification of genes involved in the development of this disorder has emerged as one of the most difficult tasks facing modern genetics and genomics. The development of techniques for studying the human genome has allowed a more systematic approach to determine variations in the genome sequence and structure that area casually involved in schizophrenia. These studies suggest the participation of hundreds of genes in schizophrenia development. In addition, it has been suggested that many of these genes are involved in various mental illnesses that today are diagnosed as separate entities, but whose biological substrate may be shared.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[esquizofrenia]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[desarrollo]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[deleciones]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[duplicaciones]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[polimorfismos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[schizophrenia]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[deletions]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[development]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[duplications]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[polymorphisms]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <font face="verdana" size="2">      <P align="center"><font size="4">IDENTIFICACI&Oacute;N DE FACTORES GEN&Eacute;TICOS EN LA ETIOLOG&Iacute;A DE LA ESQUIZOFRENIA</font> </P >     <p align="center"    >Identification of Genetic Factors in the Etiology of Schizophrenia </p >     <P   >ARGEL AGUILAR-VALLES<Sup>1</Sup>, Ph. D. <Sup>1</Sup>Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University   6875 LaSalle Boulevard, 2nd floor Perry Pavilion, Montreal, Qu&eacute;bec,   Canad&aacute;. <a href="mailto:argel.aguilarvalles@mail.mcgill.com">argel.aguilarvalles@mail.mcgill.com</a> </P >     <P    >Presentado 27 de enero de 2011, aceptado 20 de abril de 2011, correcciones 1 de julio de 2011. </P ><hr size="1">     <p    >RESUMEN </p >     <P    >Esquizofrenia es un trastorno mental que afecta aproximadamente 1% de la poblaci&oacute;n mundial. Est&aacute; caracterizada por episodios psic&oacute;ticos, en los cuales los individuos presentan alucinaciones y/o delirios. A su vez, este trastorno involucra un fuerte componente de disfunci&oacute;n social, falta de motivaci&oacute;n y deficiencias cognitivas profundas. Las causas de este trastorno se desconocen a ciencia cierta, aunque la evidencia acumulada indica que surge por alteraciones en el desarrollo del sistema nervioso central. Entre los factores que incrementan el riesgo a desarrollar este trastorno se encuentran varios elementos del ambiente incluyendo, infecciones y malnutrici&oacute;n prenatal, as&iacute; como complicaciones durante el parto. Sin embargo, estudios detallados han corroborado la existencia de factores gen&eacute;ticos involucrados en el desarrollo de esquizofrenia y se&ntilde;alan a estos como los factores m&aacute;s importantes que parecen determinar la aparici&oacute;n de la enfermedad. A pesar de esto, la identificaci&oacute;n de genes involucrados en el desarrollo de esta enfermedad ha resultado ser una de las tareas m&aacute;s dif&iacute;ciles que enfrentan la gen&eacute;tica y la gen&oacute;mica. El desarrollo de t&eacute;cnicas modernas para el estudio del genoma humano ha permitido estudiar de forma sistem&aacute;tica las variaciones en la secuencia y estructura del genoma que dan lugar a esquizofrenia, permitiendo la identificaci&oacute;n de cientos de genes, que pueden estar involucrados en el desarrollo de la enfermedad. Adem&aacute;s, se ha sugerido que muchos de estos genes est&aacute;n involucrados en varias enfermedades mentales que en la actualidad se diagnostican como trastornos diferentes, pero cuyo substrato biol&oacute;gico pudiera ser similar. </P >     <P    >Palabras clave: esquizofrenia, desarrollo, deleciones, duplicaciones, polimorfismos. </P ><hr size="1">     <p    >ABSTRACT </p >     <P   >Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that affects approximately 1% of the worldwide population. It is characterized by psychotic episodes in which individuals have hallucinations or delusions. This disorder also involves a strong element of social dysfunction, lack of motivation and profound cognitive deficits. The causes of this disorder remain largely unknown, but evidence indicates that arises from changes in the development of the central nervous system. Among the identified risk factors for this disorder are several environmental events, including prenatal infections and malnutrition, and complications during childbirth. However, the most important factor seems to be genetics. Despite this, the identification of genes involved in the development of this disorder has emerged as one of the most difficult tasks facing modern genetics and genomics. The development of techniques for studying the human genome has allowed a more systematic approach to determine variations in the genome sequence and structure that area casually involved in schizophrenia. These studies suggest the participation of hundreds of genes in schizophrenia development. In addition, it has been suggested that many of these genes are involved in various mental illnesses that today are diagnosed as separate entities, but whose biological substrate may be shared. </P >     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P   >Key words: schizophrenia, deletions, development, duplications, polymorphisms. </P ><hr size="1">     <p   >&iquest;QU&Eacute; ES ESQUIZOFRENIA? </p >      <P   >Esquizofrenia es un trastorno mental heterog&eacute;neo que afecta aproximadamente 1% de la poblaci&oacute;n mundial (Walker <I>et al.</I>, 2004) y cuya sintomatolog&iacute;a var&iacute;a considerable-mente entre pacientes. Se la ha denominado la peor enfermedad que afecta a la poblaci&oacute;n mundial (An&oacute;nimo, 1988) y se estima que es el s&eacute;ptimo trastorno m&aacute;s costoso en sociedades modernas (Freedman, 2003). La complejidad de la esquizofrenia tambi&eacute;n se extiende a su etiolog&iacute;a, ya que la evidencia epidemiol&oacute;gica sugiere que este es un trastorno de origen multifactorial, involucrando factores tanto gen&eacute;ticos como ambientales. Adem&aacute;s, los factores gen&eacute;ticos parecen ser de gran complejidad, involucrando mutaciones en cientos de genes (Gejman <I>et al.</I>, 2010). </P >     <P   >La esquizofrenia est&aacute; definida por una serie de s&iacute;ntomas conductuales clasificados como positivos, negativos y cognitivos (Walker <I>et al.</I>, 2004; Ross <I>et al.</I>, 2006; van Os y Kapur, 2009). Los s&iacute;ntomas positivos se refieren a aquellos que involucran exceso de ideas, experiencias sensoriales o comportamientos; estos incluyen alucinaciones, delirios y comportamientos at&iacute;picos (Walker <I>et al.</I>, 2004). Por otra parte, los s&iacute;ntomas negativos est&aacute;n definidos como una disminuci&oacute;n en ciertos comportamientos, como afectividad reducida, anhedonia y falta de motivaci&oacute;n (Walker <I>et al.</I>, 2004). Finalmente los s&iacute;ntomas cognitivos son una serie de deficiencias en pr&aacute;cticamente todos los dominios del funcionamiento cognitivo, desde las tareas cognitivas m&aacute;s simples de procesamiento de informaci&oacute;n sensorial hasta las tareas mentales m&aacute;s complejas (Walker <I>et al.</I>, 2004). A pesar del efecto generalizado de la esquizofrenia en los procesos cognitivos, la memoria de trabajo parece ser uno de los dominios afectados m&aacute;s fuertemente (Walker <I>et al.</I>, 2004). La importancia de las deficiencias cognitivas no fue reconocida en las definiciones anteriores de la enfermedad, sin embargo, actualmente se consideran un componente central de la enfermedad que est&aacute; presente en los individuos previo a la primera manifestaci&oacute;n de los episodios psic&oacute;ticos (Walker <I>et al.</I>, 2004; Ross <I>et al.</I>, 2006; van Os y Kapur, 2009). </P >     <P   >El manual de diagn&oacute;stico y estad&iacute;stica de los trastornos mentales (4.&ordf; edici&oacute;n revisada) establece los siguientes criterios para el diagn&oacute;stico de esquizofrenia: la presencia por lo menos un mes, de dos o m&aacute;s de los siguientes s&iacute;ntomas: ideas delirantes, alucinaciones, lenguaje desorganizado, comportamiento catat&oacute;nico o desorganizado y s&iacute;ntomas negativos tales como pobreza afectiva, alogia o abulia (<I>American Psychiatric Association</I>, 2000). Si las ideas delirantes son extra&ntilde;as, si consisten en una voz que relata los pensamientos o comportamiento del sujeto, o si dos voces conversan entre ellas, el diagn&oacute;stico de esquizofrenia es inmediato. Adem&aacute;s, debe haber, por el mismo periodo de tiempo, disminuci&oacute;n en el nivel de desempe&ntilde;o laboral, en las relaciones interpersonales y/o en el cuidado personal. Sin embargo, para poder ser considerada esquizofrenia, la duraci&oacute;n m&iacute;nima de estas alteraciones conductuales debe ser de seis meses. En este sentido, si los s&iacute;ntomas psic&oacute;ticos han sido tratados exitosamente, se puede incluir en este periodo el tiempo que precedi&oacute; al diagn&oacute;stico de la enfermedad (periodo prodr&oacute;mico) o el periodo residual, en el cual solo se manifiestan los s&iacute;ntomas negativos, o s&iacute;ntomas positivos atenuados. Adicional a estos criterios, para poder diagnosticar esquizofrenia se debe excluir la posibilidad de que los s&iacute;ntomas se ajusten a otras enfermedades mentales, como el trastorno esquizofectivo, o del estado de &aacute;nimo, el uso de sustancias adictivas (drogas de abuso o medicamentos) o cualquier otra enfermedad que pueda ser la causa de los s&iacute;ntomas descritos anteriormente.</P >     <P   >La definici&oacute;n de esquizofrenia es bastante amplia, e incluye individuos con caracter&iacute;sticas conductuales claramente discernibles (Walker <I>et al.</I>, 2004). Al mismo tiempo, los s&iacute;ntomas individuales de la esquizofrenia se superponen con varios trastornos llamados no-afectivos, al cual la esquizofrenia pertenece, as&iacute; como trastornos afectivos como enfermedad bipolar y depresi&oacute;n mayor (<I>American Psychiatric Association</I>, 2000). La cantidad de s&iacute;ntomas compartidos entre distintos trastornos mentales, puede sugerir que alteraciones similares en procesos neurobiol&oacute;gicos pueden subyacer las alteraciones conductuales de varios de estos trastornos mentales, lo cual representa un reto importante para la definici&oacute;n de estas enfermedades y para el sistema de diagn&oacute;stico actual. Esto, a su vez complica los estudios cuyo objetivo es determinar los factores de riesgo y causas potenciales de esquizofrenia y de trastornos relacionados. </P >     <P   >Uno de los retos m&aacute;s importantes en la definici&oacute;n de esquizofrenia ha sido la dificultad en la identificaci&oacute;n de las alteraciones del sistema nervioso que producen las alteraciones conductuales tan caracter&iacute;sticas de la enfermedad (Arnold <I>et al.</I>, 1998; Ross <I>et al.</I>, 2006). En este sentido, no existen hasta la fecha fenotipos neuronales espec&iacute;ficos a este trastorno, lo cual ha impedido una mejor definici&oacute;n de esquizofrenia, as&iacute; como su clara distinci&oacute;n de otros trastornos mentales con s&iacute;ntomas similares. Al mismo tiempo, esto impide un diagn&oacute;stico temprano de riesgo de la enfermedad y excluye la posibilidad de tratamientos preventivos. </P >     <P   >Con el advenimiento de las t&eacute;cnicas modernas de imagen del organismo vivo, es posible identificar ciertas alteraciones, bastante consistentes, en el cerebro de esquizofr&eacute;nicos, tales como: aumento en el volumen de los ventr&iacute;culos laterales (Steen <I>et al.</I>, 2006; Danielyan y Nasrallah, 2009) acompa&ntilde;ado de disminuci&oacute;n en el volumen y densidad de la materia gris cortical (Selemon <I>et al.</I>, 1995; Selemon y Goldman-Rakic, 1999; Danielyan y Nasrallah, 2009), as&iacute; como alteraciones de la materia blanca (Danielyan y Nasrallah, 2009). El significado funcional de estos cambios se desconoce, aunque algunos los correlacionan con s&iacute;ntomas cognitivos del trastorno (Rapoport <I>et al.</I>, 2005; Danielyan y Nasrallah, 2009). </P >     <P   >Adem&aacute;s de los estudios morfol&oacute;gicos, mucho de lo que actualmente se conoce sobre las bases neurobiol&oacute;gicas de la esquizofrenia ha surgido de estudios farmacol&oacute;gicos, los cuales permitieron la identificaci&oacute;n de medicamentos antipsic&oacute;ticos (Seeman y Lee, 1975; Creese <I>et al.</I>, 1976) que constituyen el tratamiento m&aacute;s efectivo hasta el momento. Los resultados de estos estudios indican, con mayor o menor consistencia, que los s&iacute;ntomas positivos de esquizofrenia surgen por hiperactividad del neurotransmisor dopamina (Carlsson y Lindqvist, 1963; Weinberger, 1987; Davis <I>et al.</I>, 1991), en un circuito neuronal que conecta el &aacute;rea ventral tegmental, en el tallo cerebral, con el n&uacute;cleo <I>accumbens </I>en el complejo estriado (parte de los ganglios basales) y con la corteza prefrontal media, denominado en conjunto como el sistema dopamin&eacute;rgico mesol&iacute;mbico. La hiperactividad de dopamina mesol&iacute;mbica est&aacute; asociada con disminuci&oacute;n de la innervaci&oacute;n del principal neurotransmisor excitatorio, &aacute;cido glut&aacute;mico, aunque no est&aacute; claro cuan extendido est&aacute; el efecto en la neurotransmisi&oacute;n glutamat&eacute;rgica (Coyle, 2006). </P >     <P   >Etiolog&iacute;a de la esquizofrenia y factores de riesgo hereditarios. </P >     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<P   >La hip&oacute;tesis m&aacute;s aceptada en la actualidad con respecto a la etiolog&iacute;a de la esquizofrenia sostiene que este trastorno ocurre por alteraciones del desarrollo del sistema nervioso central (Weinberger, 1987; Rapoport <I>et al.</I>, 2005; Fatemi y Folsom, 2009). Esta hip&oacute;tesis se basa en ciertas observaciones morfol&oacute;gicas y conductuales. Por ejemplo, hay una ausencia total de signos de degeneraci&oacute;n neuronal en el cerebro de pacientes con esquizofrenia, lo cual descarta este tipo de mecanismos en el desarrollo de la enfermedad (Weinberger, 1987; Levitt, 2005; Rapoport <I>et al.</I>, 2005; Dicicco-Bloom <I>et al.</I>, 2006). Adicionalmente, muchos individuos que desarrollan esquizofrenia como adultos, presentan diversas deficiencias cognitivas durante la infancia y adolescencia, las cuales predatan la aparici&oacute;n de s&iacute;ntomas sic&oacute;ticos (Rapoport <I>et al.</I>, 2005; Ross <I>et al.</I>, 2006; Danielyan y Nasrallah, 2009; Fatemi y Folsom, 2009).</P >     <P   > Los estudios iniciales de pedigr&iacute;, de gemelos, mellizos y de adopci&oacute;n, as&iacute; como la determinaci&oacute;n de prevalencia de la enfermedad entre familiares biol&oacute;gicos de individuos afectados por esquizofrenia permitieron establecer que &eacute;sta enfermedad se puede heredar, y por lo tanto, que factores gen&eacute;ticos deben estar involucrados en su origen (Gejman <I>et al.</I>, 2010). Los datos de estos estudios permitieron establecer que en gemelos, cuyo material gen&eacute;tico es 100% id&eacute;ntico, la concordancia de la enfermedad es de 50% (Cardno y Gottesman, 2000; Sullivan <I>et al.</I>, 2003). Adicionalmente, se determin&oacute; que factores gen&eacute;ticos podr&iacute;an contribuir hasta 80% en la variabilidad del fenotipo entre individuos afectados (Mcgrath, 2007). Estos datos motivaron la b&uacute;squeda de variantes gen&eacute;ticas que estuviesen asociadas con la enfermedad y que permitieran entender los procesos biol&oacute;gicos que est&aacute;n afectados, en el cerebro de pacientes con esquizofrenia. A trav&eacute;s de la b&uacute;squeda de polimorfismos de nucle&oacute;tidos &uacute;nicos (SNPs por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s) en genes candidatos, se han reportado variaciones gen&eacute;ticas en m&aacute;s de 800 genes asociados con susceptibilidad a esquizofrenia (para mayor informaci&oacute;n revisar www.schizophreniaforum.org/res/sczgene; Gejman <I>et al.</I>, 2010). Sin embargo, pr&aacute;cticamente ninguno de estos estudios ha sido replicado en trabajos independientes, descartando o al menos minimizando la importancia de las variaciones gen&eacute;ticas descubiertas en el contexto de la poblaci&oacute;n total de individuos con el trastorno en cuesti&oacute;n (Gejman <I>et al.</I>, 2010). </P >     <P   >Con el advenimiento de la gen&oacute;mica, es decir con el desarrollo de herramientas tecnol&oacute;gicas y de an&aacute;lisis de datos que permitieron el estudio de genomas completos, incluyendo el humano, ha sido posible comenzar a investigar de forma m&aacute;s sistem&aacute;tica la presencia de variaciones gen&eacute;ticas en poblaciones de gran tama&ntilde;o, que est&eacute;n asociadas con la enfermedad. Los primeros estudios de este tipo, en los cuales se hace una b&uacute;squeda en toda la extensi&oacute;n del genoma de variaciones gen&eacute;ticas ligadas a esquizofrenia, han confirmado que &eacute;sta enfermedad es un desorden gen&eacute;tico complejo en el cual muchos genes est&aacute;n involucrados, y cada gen confiere un efecto aditivo en el fenotipo del trastorno (O&rsquo;donovan <I>et al.</I>, 2008; Sullivan <I>et al.</I>, 2008; Need <I>et al.</I>, 2009; Purcell <I>et al.</I>, 2009; Shi <I>et al.</I>, 2009; Stefansson <I>et al.</I>, 2009). En este sentido, el valor diagn&oacute;stico de las variaciones gen&eacute;ticas es muy limitado y deben considerarse en un modelo que involucre la interacci&oacute;n epist&aacute;tica entre los genes involucrados, as&iacute; como las interacciones con factores ambientales de riesgo (Gejman <I>et al.</I>, 2010). </P >     <P   >Los estudios de asociaci&oacute;n en el genoma completo (GWAS por sus siglas en ingl&eacute;s: <I>Genome-Wide Association Studies</I>) permitieron generar por primera vez evidencia en apoyo a la hip&oacute;tesis de un modelo polig&eacute;nico de la enfermedad. Adem&aacute;s, estos estudios permitieron la identificaci&oacute;n de variantes en el n&uacute;mero de copias, que si bien ocurren poco frecuentemente (menos de 1% de la poblaci&oacute;n de esquizofr&eacute;nicos), involucran grandes regiones del genoma, mayores de 100.000 pares de bases (Walsh <I>et al.</I>, 2008; Sebat <I>et al.</I>, 2009; Bassett <I>et al.</I>, 2010). </P >     <P   >Una de las regiones del genoma cuya variaci&oacute;n est&aacute; m&aacute;s consistentemente asociada con esquizofrenia, es la del complejo mayor de histocompatibilidad II (CMHII) ubicada en el cromosoma seis (Purcell <I>et al.</I>, 2009; Shi <I>et al.</I>, 2009; Stefansson <I>et al.</I>, 2009). En este segmento del genoma, los polimorfismos m&aacute;s fuertemente asociados con esquizofrenia se encuentran en cercan&iacute;a a un grupo de genes que codifican para histonas, el componente proteico de la cromatina, y varios genes involucrados en la respuesta inmune (Dixon <I>et al.</I>, 2007). Muchas de las variaciones asociadas, sin embargo, se encuentran localizadas en regiones interg&eacute;nicas no codificantes, es decir, regiones del genoma que no contienen informaci&oacute;n que pueda traducirse en prote&iacute;nas (Purcell <I>et al.</I>, 2009; Shi <I>et al.</I>, 2009; Stefansson <I>et al.</I>, 2009). Una de las posibles explicaciones de estos resultados es que estas secuencias se encuentren involucradas en funciones regulatorias, las cuales participan en el control de expresi&oacute;n de genes circundantes (Kleinjan y Van Heyningen, 2005); pues tambi&eacute;n se sabe que gran parte del genoma se transcribe, tanto de regiones g&eacute;nicas como interg&eacute;nicas (Birney <I>et al.</I>, 2007). Se ha demostrado tambi&eacute;n que algunos de los RNAs no-codificantes tienen funciones biol&oacute;gicas definidas, aunque se requiere generar evidencia para la gran mayor&iacute;a de los casos de transcritos no codificantes. Una interpretaci&oacute;n alternativa es que las regiones asociadas represen-ten marcadores gen&eacute;ticos ligados a otras variaciones que se encuentran en cercan&iacute;a f&iacute;sica.</P >     <P   > Finalmente, variaciones raras y de gran tama&ntilde;o en el n&uacute;mero de copias, relacionadas con deleciones o duplicaciones de tramos del genoma, que van desde 1.000 hasta varios millones de pares de bases se han implicado en esquizofrenia (Bassett <I>et al.</I>, 2010). Los resultados indican la existencia de este tipo de alteraciones en varias regiones del genoma, incluyendo regiones en los cromosomas uno (Stefansson <I>et al.</I>, 2008; <I>The International Schizophrenia Consortium</I>, 2008; Walsh <I>et al.</I>, 2008), dos (Walsh <I>et al.</I>, 2008; <I>The International Schizophrenia Consortium</I>, 2008), siete (<I>The International Schizophrenia Consortium</I>, 2008), 15 (Stefansson <I>et al.</I>, 2008; <I>The International Schizophrenia Consortium</I>, 2008), 16 (Stefansson <I>et al.</I>, 2008; Walsh <I>et al.</I>, 2008) y 22 (Bassett y Chow, 2008; Bassett <I>et al.</I>, 2008). De estas, la deleci&oacute;n de aproximadamente tres millones de pares de bases en el cromosoma 22 representa el factor de riesgo m&aacute;s grande que se conoce para esquizofrenia (Karayiorgou <I>et al.</I>, 2010). Los individuos portadores de esta deleci&oacute;n desarrollan el s&iacute;ndrome conocido como velocardiofacial, de los cuales el 30% desarrollan psicosis, de los cuales 80% es esquizofrenia (Shprintzen <I>et al.</I>, 1992; Pulver <I>et al.</I>, 1994; Murphy <I>et al.</I>, 1999).</P >     <P   > La participaci&oacute;n de variaciones gen&eacute;ticas es indiscutible en el desarrollo de esquizofrenia. Sin embargo, el estudio de estas variaciones ha revelado que la esquizofrenia, junto con otros trastornos mentales, quiz&aacute; represente una de las enfermedades gen&eacute;ticamente m&aacute;s complejas y solo se ha empezado a entender la naturaleza de las alteraciones gen&oacute;micas que ocurren en este trastorno. No debemos olvidar, que en su etiolog&iacute;a la esquizofrenia y otras formas de psicosis involucran factores ambientales. Una gran cantidad de evidencia se ha generado a este respecto y se han identificado varias complicaciones durante la gestaci&oacute;n y parto como factores que incrementan el riesgo de desarrollar la enfermedad (Feinberg, 1982; Weinberger, 1987; Gilmore <I>et al.</I>, 1998; Mathalon <I>et al.</I>, 2003; Rapoport <I>et al.</I>, 2005; Fatemi y Folsom, 2009). Estos descubrimientos apoyan la hip&oacute;tesis de un origen de la enfermedad durante el desarrollo del sistema nervioso (Trottier <I>et al.</I>, 1999; Arndt <I>et al.</I>, 2005; Levitt, 2005; Caspi y Moffitt, 2006), y deben tomarse en cuenta, junto con los factores gen&eacute;ticos, para entender como se originan enfermedades como la esquizofrenia. </P >     <P   >Muchos de estos factores ambientales est&aacute;n asociados con activaci&oacute;n del sistema inmune (infecciones prenatales, estr&eacute;s materno, etc.; Geddes y Lawrie, 1995; Cannon <I>et al.</I>, 2002; Deverman y Patterson, 2009; Brown y Derkits, 2010) lo cual pudiera estar relacionado con el hecho de que polimorfismos y variantes en el n&uacute;mero de copias ocurran en genes o regiones gen&oacute;micas que contienen genes involucrados en la funci&oacute;n del sistema inmune, como la regi&oacute;n del CMHII. Esto sugiere que factores ambientales podr&iacute;an incrementar el riesgo de desarrollo de trastornos psic&oacute;ticos, incluyendo esquizofrenia, en casos donde exista predisposici&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica (Rapoport <I>et al.</I>, 2005; Caspi y Moffitt, 2006; Dean <I>et al.</I>, 2009). </P >     <p    >AGRADECIEMIENTOS </p >     <P   >Quiero agradecer a la M. Sc. Edna P. Matta Camacho por la revisi&oacute;n cr&iacute;tica de este manuscrito. As&iacute; mismo a la Dra. Nubia Matta Camacho por la invitaci&oacute;n para participar en la C&aacute;tedra de Sede Jos&eacute; Celestino Mutis de la UNAL: -Todo lo que usted quiere saber de gen&eacute;tica y nunca se atrevi&oacute; a preguntar- y el soporte econ&oacute;mico para la asistencia a dicho evento. Finalmente a la Biol. Lina Mar&iacute;a Caballero Villalobos por el apoyo en los tr&aacute;mites administrativos durante el evento. </P >     ]]></body>
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