<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0120-548X</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Acta Biológica Colombiana]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Acta biol.Colomb.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0120-548X</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Biología]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0120-548X2012000100002</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[FILOGEOGRAFÍA COMPARADA: CONCEPTOS, MÉTODOS Y PATRONES GENERALES EN AVES NEOTROPICALES]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Comparative Phylogeography: Concepts, Methods and General Patterns in Neotropical Birds]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[ARBELÁEZ-CORTÉS]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[ENRIQUE]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Facultad de Ciencias y Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas Departamento de Biología Evolutiva]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2012</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>17</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<fpage>19</fpage>
<lpage>38</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0120-548X2012000100002&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0120-548X2012000100002&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0120-548X2012000100002&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Entender los patrones y procesos de diversificación de linajes intraespecíficos en el tiempo y en el espacio es el objetivo de la filogeografía. La comparación de estos patrones filogeográficos entre especies co-distribuidas muestra indicios de la historia de una comunidad. Aquí, reviso los conceptos y la metodología de la filogeografía comparada, un campo muy activo pero con métodos de análisis heterogéneos. Para dar un marco de referencia de la filogeografía en el Neotrópico, comento los patrones filogeográficos generales de las aves de esta región. La revisión de más de 100 estudios realizados en los últimos 25 años indica que los patrones filogeográficos de cada especie a pesar de coincidir en ciertos puntos con el de otras especies co-distribuidas tienen aspectos idiosincrásicos que indican que su historia es única.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Understanding the patterns and processes involved in intraspecific lineages diversification in time and space is the aim of phylogeography. The comparison of those phylogeographic patterns among co-distributed species shows insights of a community history. Here I review the concepts and methodologies of comparative phylogeography, an active research field that has heterogeneous analytical methods. In order to present a framework for phylogeography in the Neotropics, I comment the general phylogeographic patterns of the birds from this region. This review is based on more than 100 studies conducted during the last 25 years and indicate that despite different co-distributed species seem to share some points in their phylogeographic pattern they have idiosyncratic aspects, indicating an unique history for each one.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[aves]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[comunidades]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[filogeografia]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[neotrópico]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Birds]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[communities]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Neotropics]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[phylogeography]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <font face="verdana" size="2">     <p align="center"><font size="4"><b>FILOGEOGRAF&Iacute;A COMPARADA: CONCEPTOS, M&Eacute;TODOS Y PATRONES  GENERALES EN AVES NEOTROPICALES</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>Comparative Phylogeography: Concepts, Methods and General Patterns in Neotropical Birds</b></font></p>     <p >ENRIQUE ARBEL&Aacute;EZ-CORT&Eacute;S<sup>1</sup>, M.Sc.</p>     <p ><sup>1</sup> Museo de Zoolog&iacute;a, Departamento de Biolog&iacute;a Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias y Posgrado en Ciencias Biol&oacute;gicas, Universidad Nacional Aut&oacute;noma de M&eacute;xico. Ciudad Universitaria 04510, M&eacute;xico. <a href="mailto:enriquearbelaez@gmail.com">enriquearbelaez@gmail.com</a></p>     <p >Presentado 17 de agosto de 2011, aceptado 7 de febrero de 2012, correcciones 8 de febrero de 2012.</p> <hr>     <p><b>RESUMEN</b></p>     <p>Entender los patrones y procesos  de diversificaci&oacute;n de linajes intraespec&iacute;ficos en el tiempo y en el espacio es el objetivo de la filogeograf&iacute;a. La comparaci&oacute;n  de estos patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos entre especies co-distribuidas muestra indicios de la historia de una comunidad. Aqu&iacute;, reviso los conceptos y la metodolog&iacute;a de la filogeograf&iacute;a comparada, un campo muy activo pero con m&eacute;todos de an&aacute;lisis heterog&eacute;neos. Para dar un marco de referencia  de la filogeograf&iacute;a  en el Neotr&oacute;pico,  comento  los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos generales de las aves de esta regi&oacute;n. La revisi&oacute;n de m&aacute;s de 100 estudios realizados en los &uacute;ltimos 25 a&ntilde;os indica que los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos de cada especie a pesar de coincidir en ciertos puntos con el de otras especies co-distribuidas tienen aspectos idiosincr&aacute;sicos que indican que su historia es &uacute;nica.</p>     <p><b>Palabras clave:</b> aves, comunidades, filogeografia, neotr&oacute;pico.</p> <hr>     <p><b>ABSTRACT</b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Understanding   the   patterns   and  processes  involved   in  intraspecific   lineages diversification in time and space is the aim of phylogeography. The comparison of those phylogeographic patterns among co-distributed species shows insights of a community history. Here I review the concepts and methodologies of comparative phylogeography, an active research field that has heterogeneous analytical methods. In order to present a framework for phylogeography in the Neotropics, I comment the general phylogeographic patterns of the birds from this region. This review is based on more than 100 studies conducted during the last 25 years and indicate that despite different co-distributed species  seem  to  share  some  points  in their  phylogeographic  pattern  they  have idiosyncratic aspects, indicating an unique history for each one.</p>     <p><b>Key words:</b> Birds, communities, Neotropics, phylogeography.</p> <hr>     <p><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></p>     <p>Un resultado reiterado al estudiar la variaci&oacute;n de caracteres en las poblaciones de una especie es que, tal variaci&oacute;n, no es geogr&aacute;ficamente aleatoria; sino que tiene estructura, permitiendo ver la evoluci&oacute;n en su nivel espacial m&aacute;s b&aacute;sico (Gould y Johnston, 1972). En los estudios de filogeograf&iacute;a (Avise <i>et al</i>., 1987) se utilizan secuencias de ADN de varios individuos de una especie para reconstruir las relaciones hist&oacute;ricas de sus poblaciones y luego interpretarlas geogr&aacute;ficamente, enfatizando en la influencia de eventos geol&oacute;gicos o paleoecol&oacute;gicos que asocien la historia de esa especie con la de su ambiente (Riddle, 1996; Avise, 1998; Arbogast y Kenagy, 2001). La filogeograf&iacute;a, aunque con sesgo hacia los animales, ha crecido r&aacute;pidamente y se ha puesto al frente de estudios microevolutivos (Avise, 2000; Soltis <i>et al</i>., 2006; Beheregaray, 2008; Hickerson <i>et al</i>., 2010) usando nuevos m&eacute;todos y enfoques (Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2010; Hickerson <i>et al</i>., 2010; Chan <i>et al</i>., 2011).</p>     <p>   La filogeograf&iacute;a comparada estudia los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos de varias especies codistribuidas de un modo cualitativo o usando m&eacute;todos expl&iacute;citos, muy heterog&eacute;neos, que vale la pena revisar (e.g. Bermingham  y Avise, 1986; Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000; Zink, 2002; Cartens <i>et al</i>., 2005; Lapointe y Rissler, 2005; Carnaval <i>et al</i>., 2009). El mismo t&eacute;rmino tambi&eacute;n se ha usado  para denominar otro tipo de estudios que comparan los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos de especies muy relacionadas pero alop&aacute;tricas (e.g. Pastorini <i>et al</i>., 2003; Albach <i>et al</i>., 2006; Chapple <i>et al</i>., 2008) que no considerar&eacute; aqu&iacute;. La filogeograf&iacute;a comparada ha permitido visualizar patrones y proponer procesos relacionados con el origen de la diversidad  en zonas de alta riqueza de especies como el Neotr&oacute;pico (Solomon <i>et al</i>., 2008; Carnaval <i>et al</i>., 2009) y en grupos taxon&oacute;micos como las aves que tiene linajes con historias naturales dispares (Burney y Brumfield, 2009; Weir, 2009). A pesar de que las aves han sido el grupo de vertebrados menos estudiado desde una perspectiva filogeogr&aacute;fica (Beheregaray, 2008) los patrones que han mostrado ejemplifican la ocurrencia de diversos procesos evolutivos en su historia reciente, algo muy relevante para entender la diversidad presente en zonas como el Neotr&oacute;pico (e.g., Cadena, 2007; Mil&aacute; <i>et al</i>., 2009; Gonz&aacute;lez <i>et al</i>., 2011). En esta revisi&oacute;n mis objetivos son: 1) exponer los conceptos fundamentales de la filogeograf&iacute;a comparada y su marco metodol&oacute;gico y 2) revisar el estado del conocimiento de la filogeograf&iacute;a  de las aves Neotropicales, comentando algunos de sus patrones m&aacute;s generales.</p>     <p><b>MATERIALES  Y M&Eacute;TODOS</b></p>     <p>Para esta revisi&oacute;n realic&eacute; una b&uacute;squeda del t&eacute;rmino comparative phylogeography en el contenido de varias revistas cient&iacute;ficas tales como: Molecular  Phylogenetics and Evolution, Molecular Ecology, Evolution, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society y Journal of Biogeography. Examin&eacute; los resultados de estas b&uacute;squedas, seleccionando los art&iacute;culos que trataran directamente de estudios de filogeograf&iacute;a  comparada  e hice &eacute;nfasis en trabajos con vertebrados terrestres. Registros adicionales fueron obtenidos de la literatura citada en estos art&iacute;culos as&iacute; como de b&uacute;squedas puntuales en otras revistas. Adicionalmente, con el fin de mostrar un panorama de la filogeograf&iacute;a de aves neotropicales, compil&eacute; todos los art&iacute;culos de filogeograf&iacute;a que encontr&eacute; para este grupo de vertebrados llevados a cabo en dicha zona, incluyendo  algunos trabajos de filogeograf&iacute;a comparada.  El Neotr&oacute;pico lo defino aqu&iacute; como la mitad norte de Sur Am&eacute;rica, Centro Am&eacute;rica y la mitad sur de M&eacute;xico y la b&uacute;squeda de trabajos la limito a especies continentales cuya distribuci&oacute;n est&eacute; total o principalmente dentro de esta zona. Como resultado obtuve 94 art&iacute;culos sobre filogeograf&iacute;a  comparada  y 30 trabajos de filogeograf&iacute;a  en aves Neotropicales publicados durante 25 a&ntilde;os (1986 mayo de 2011).</p>     <p><b>FILOGEOGRAF&Iacute;A COMPARADA: FUNDAMENTOS  CONCEPTUALES</b></p>     <p>De acuerdo con los art&iacute;culos revisados, la filogeograf&iacute;a comparada busca congruencias en los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos y en los procesos demogr&aacute;ficos  de especies que comparten, total o parcialmente, sus distribuciones geogr&aacute;ficas, y contrasta tales patrones con informaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica, paleoecol&oacute;gica o biogeogr&aacute;fica  (Bermingham  y Avise, 1986; Zink, 1991; Joseph <i>et al</i>., 1995; Avise, 2000; Arbogast y Kenagy, 2001; Zink, 2002; Lapointe y Rissler, 2005; Carstens y Richards, 2007; Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2008; Castoe <i>et al</i>., 2009). Esta b&uacute;squeda de congruencia se fundamenta en la idea de que las especies que solapan sus distribuciones tienen una historia compartida (Bermingham  y Avise, 1986; Zink, 2002; Lapointe y Rissler, 2005; Morrone, 2009). Impl&iacute;cita en esta interpretaci&oacute;n est&aacute; la asunci&oacute;n de que las especies co-distribuidas actualmente debieron estarlo tambi&eacute;n en el pasado (Carstens y Richards, 2007), por lo cual se esperar&iacute;a que los mismos eventos ecol&oacute;gicos o geol&oacute;gicos hayan afectado en sincron&iacute;a a esas especies, haciendo que las historias de sus poblaciones sean semejantes. Bajo este escenario, al reconstruir la historia de las especies de una regi&oacute;n, usando m&eacute;todos filogeogr&aacute;ficos, se deber&iacute;a recuperar: 1) congruencia topol&oacute;gica, 2) congruencia temporal y 3) congruencia demogr&aacute;fica. A continuaci&oacute;n comento cada uno de estos tipos de congruencia.</p>     <p>   La congruencia topol&oacute;gica implica que las especies de un &aacute;rea geogr&aacute;fica respondieron concertadamente ante los mismos eventos hist&oacute;ricos por lo que deben tener patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos semejantes (Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000). La congruencia topol&oacute;gica se consider&oacute; como la hip&oacute;tesis fundamental a poner a prueba en filogeograf&iacute;a comparada, siendo la incongruencia explicada por diferencias ecol&oacute;gicas entre especies (Joseph <i>et al</i>., 1995; Turner <i>et al</i>., 1996; Zink, 1996; Rocha <i>et al</i>., 2002; Crawford <i>et al</i>., 2007; Qu <i>et al</i>., 2010). Sin embargo, varios trabajos muestran que la incongruencia topol&oacute;gica es frecuente (e.g. Turner <i>et al</i>., 1996; Kelemen y Moritz, 1999; Rocha <i>et al</i>., 2002; Lourie <i>et al</i>., 2005; Roberts, 2006; Bell <i>et al</i>., 2007; Kirchman y Franklin, 2007; Guzik <i>et al</i>., 2009; Moussalli <i>et al</i>., 2009; Qu <i>et al</i>., 2010) y la evidencia paleontol&oacute;gica indica que las comunidades pueden variar de un modo no concertado (Bennett, 1990; Barnosky  y Shabel, 2005). La interpretaci&oacute;n de la congruencia topol&oacute;gica en presencia de barreras geogr&aacute;ficas conspicuas es sencilla mientras que la incongruencia plantea el reto de identificar la raz&oacute;n de las diferencias entre especies. Actualmente se sabe que la incongruencia topol&oacute;gica puede originarse por diferencias entre especies en cuanto a: selecci&oacute;n natural, tasas de mutaci&oacute;n molecular, tama&ntilde;o efectivo poblacional, capacidad de dispersi&oacute;n, diferencias sutiles entre distribuciones, factores demogr&aacute;ficos, extinciones locales (Avise, 1998; Rocha <i>et al</i>., 2002; Cartens <i>et al</i>., 2005; Steele y Storfer, 2007; Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2008) o por la aleatoriedad impl&iacute;cita en el proceso de coalescencia de los genes (Hugall <i>et al</i>., 2002; Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2008). Tambi&eacute;n, se ha propuesto la idea (interesante pero poco explorada) de que la incongruencia topol&oacute;gica indica que no hubo simpatr&iacute;a hist&oacute;rica entre especies (Zink, 1996; Zink, 2002). Actualmente, la dicotom&iacute;a congruencia-incongruencia topol&oacute;gica se considera  simplista, y las semejanzas en los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos de especies simp&aacute;tricas son vistos como puntos a lo largo de un gradiente complejo cuyos extremos son: congruencia total e incongruencia absoluta (Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000; Zink, 2002; Carstens y Richards,  2007; Steele y Storfer, 2007; Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2008), siendo el grado de congruencia un indicativo de la estabilidad hist&oacute;rica de la comunidad estudiada (Zink, 2002).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>   La congruencia temporal  en la divisi&oacute;n  de linajes  intraespec&iacute;ficos  entre  especies simp&aacute;tricas tambi&eacute;n la estudia la filogeograf&iacute;a  comparada  y su identificaci&oacute;n se ha potenciado con el refinamiento de m&eacute;todos de dataje usando informaci&oacute;n molecular (Bermingham  y Avise, 1986; Avise, 1992; Cartens <i>et al</i>., 2005; Barber y Klicka, 2010). Su fundamento es que si dos especies comparten su patr&oacute;n filogeogr&aacute;fico es porque un mismo evento hist&oacute;rico las afect&oacute; al mismo tiempo. Sin embargo,  patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos similares pueden resultar de diferentes eventos asincr&oacute;nicos (Avise, 1992; Barber <i>et al</i>., 2006; Soltis <i>et al</i>., 2006; Barber y Klicka, 2010); lo cual es conocido como pseudocongruencia (Soltis <i>et al</i>., 2006). La pseudocongruencia indica que las especies pueden responder independientemente a eventos similares repetidos en un mismo lugar. Finalmente, la congruencia demogr&aacute;fica puede buscarse analizando indicios de cambios poblacionales hist&oacute;ricos debidos, por ejemplo, a que varias especies aumentaron su tama&ntilde;o poblacional al expandirse por una nueva &aacute;rea tras un cambio ambiental (Hewitt, 2000, 2001, 2004; Lessa <i>et al</i>., 2003, 2010). Esta congruencia puede encontrarse, incluso, entre especies que no presenten estructura filogeogr&aacute;fica (Zink, 2002).</p>     <p><b>FILOGEOGRAF&Iacute;A COMPARADA: M&Eacute;TODOS</b></p>     <p>Tradicionalmente la identificaci&oacute;n de congruencia  en filogeograf&iacute;a  comparada  se ha hecho mediante inspecci&oacute;n 'visual' o cualitativa de los resultados de an&aacute;lisis filogeogr&aacute;ficos independientes para cada especie (Zink, 2002; Cartens <i>et al</i>., 2005; Carstens y Richards, 2007). A pesar de ser subjetivo (Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000; Soltis <i>et al</i>., 2006), este m&eacute;todo se encuentra t&aacute;cito en casi todos los estudios de filogeograf&iacute;a comparada (e.g. Bermingham  y Avise, 1986; Kelemen y Moritz, 1999; Zink <i>et al</i>., 2001; Dawson <i>et al</i>., 2002; Hugall <i>et al</i>., 2002; Rocha <i>et al</i>., 2002; Dooh <i>et al</i>., 2006; Barber <i>et al</i>., 2006; Roberts, 2006; Taylor y Hellberg,  2006; Bell <i>et al</i>., 2007; Kirchman  y Franklin, 2007; Crandall <i>et al</i>., 2008; Castoe <i>et al</i>., 2009; Guzik <i>et al</i>., 2009; Qu <i>et al</i>., 2010; Beatty y Provan, 2011; Oshida <i>et al</i>., 2011; Saeki <i>et al</i>., 2011) y solo algunos autores indican su uso (Schneider <i>et al</i>., 1998; Sch&auml;uble y Moritz, 2001; Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000). Tal vez las comparaciones 'a ojo' siguen vigentes dada la dificultad (o &iquest;imposibilidad?) de formalizar procesos hist&oacute;ricos como la evoluci&oacute;n. No obstante, existen m&eacute;todos expl&iacute;citos que dan rigor a la filogeograf&iacute;a comparada (<a href="#tabla1">Tabla 1</a>.). Para explicar sus generalidades agrup&eacute; estos m&eacute;todos considerando el modo como usan la informaci&oacute;n filogeogr&aacute;fica y siguiendo el orden de ideas de Garrick <i>et al</i>. (2008). A continuaci&oacute;n comento su uso para identificar cada tipo de congruencia en filogeograf&iacute;a comparada.</p>      <p align="center"><a name="tabla1"><img src="img/revistas/abc/v17n1/v17n1a2t1.jpg"></a></p>     <p>   La congruencia topol&oacute;gica puede examinarse directamente usando cladogramas de &aacute;reas (Da Silva y Patton, 1993; Bermingham  y Martin, 1998; Taberlet <i>et al</i>., 1998; Schneider <i>et al</i>., 1998; Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000; Zink, 2002; Feldman y Spicer, 2006), que se generan sustituyendo las ramas terminales del cladograma  de cada especie por la localidad/regi&oacute;n del individuo al que corresponde. Estos cladogramas se comparan, o combinan, usando m&eacute;todos biogeogr&aacute;ficos tales como: parsimonia de Brooks (Taberlet <i>et al</i>., 1998), an&aacute;lisis de componentes (Bermingham  y Martin, 1998), &aacute;rboles reconciliados (Bermingham  y Martin, 1998), an&aacute;lisis de descomposici&oacute;n (Schneider <i>et al</i>., 1998) o tree mapping  (Feldman y Spicer, 2006; Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000) para generar un cladograma  general de &aacute;reas; que es un consenso que muestra congruencias  y diferencias entre especies. Aunque expl&iacute;citos, estos m&eacute;todos pierden utilidad cuando hay demasiada incongruencia topol&oacute;gica (Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000). Otra forma de 'medir' la congruencia topol&oacute;gica es ajustando el patr&oacute;n filogeogr&aacute;fico  de una especie en el de otra (Bermingham  y Martin, 1998; Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000; Steele y Storfer, 2007) con m&eacute;todos estad&iacute;sticos como: Kishino-Hasegawa-Templeton test (Templeton, 1983; Kishino y  Hasegawa, 1989), bootstrap param&eacute;trico  (Efron  y Tibshirani,  1993), ShimodairaHasegawa test (Shimodaira, 2002) o approximately unbiased test (Shimodaira y Hasegawa, 2001). Estos m&eacute;todos miden diferencias de valores de 'optimalidad' entre un &aacute;rbol &oacute;ptimo (generado para una especie) y un &aacute;rbol ajustado a la hip&oacute;tesis que se est&aacute; examinando (el de otra especie) usando una distribuci&oacute;n nula para derivar una probabilidad estad&iacute;stica (Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000). As&iacute; se obtiene un estimador para la congruencia entre topolog&iacute;as junto con la probabilidad de que, este, sea mayor al esperado de comparar &aacute;rboles al azar. Una aproximaci&oacute;n similar usa el patr&oacute;n de estructura gen&eacute;tica de una especie o una estructura hipot&eacute;tica (ya no la topolog&iacute;a) para evaluar los datos de otra especie, usando un an&aacute;lisis molecular  de varianza (AMOVA),  y determinar si ese agrupamiento explica bien los resultados (Sch&auml;uble y Moritz, 2001; Lourie <i>et al</i>., 2005). Sin embargo, estos m&eacute;todos solo permiten comparaciones pareadas entre especies y a pesar de haber sido usados en comunidades de vertebrados de diferentes regiones (Bermingham  y Martin, 1998; Schneider <i>et al</i>., 1998; Sullivan <i>et al</i>., 2000; Feldman y Spicer, 2006) no han indicado congruencia topol&oacute;gica total.</p>     <p>   Una manera 'indirecta' de buscar congruencia topol&oacute;gica es comparando los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos de cada especie contra una topolog&iacute;a hipot&eacute;tica (modelo); que es la esperada si las especies de un &aacute;rea hubieran sido afectadas por eventos hist&oacute;ricos conocidos (Cartens <i>et al</i>., 2005; Crawford <i>et al</i>., 2007; Steele y Storfer, 2007; Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2008; Solomon <i>et al</i>., 2008). La congruencia entre los datos de cada especie y el modelo indica cuales especies se ajustan a la historia conocida del &aacute;rea y por lo tanto comparten sus patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos. Varios modelos pueden ser propuestos para representar diferentes historias (Cartens <i>et al</i>., 2005). El ajuste de los datos al modelo se hace usando las pruebas comentadas en el p&aacute;rrafo anterior y otras basadas en inferencia Bayesiana (Steele y Storfer, 2007) o en coalescencia (Knowles y Maddison, 2002). Un ejemplo de esta aproximaci&oacute;n es el de Carstens y colaboradores (Cartens <i>et al</i>., 2005) quienes encontraron que diferentes especies en un bosque templado de Estados Unidos pod&iacute;an asignarse a uno de tres modelos alternativos propuestos a partir de informaci&oacute;n ad hoc de la historia de esa comunidad. A pesar de su utilidad estos modelos podr&iacute;an sesgarse por las expectativas del investigador. Para disminuir tal sesgo se puede  usar una aproximaci&oacute;n que combina modelos de nicho ecol&oacute;gico (ENM) proyectados geogr&aacute;ficamente en diferentes tiempos (condiciones paleoclim&aacute;ticas) que al ser visualizados mediante sistemas de informaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica permiten proponer modelos menos subjetivos (Chan <i>et al</i>., 2011).</p>     <p>   Para evitar sesgos por parte del investigador al buscar congruencia topol&oacute;gica tambi&eacute;n se pueden  'aglomerar', en un solo an&aacute;lisis, todos los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos mediante un super&aacute;rbol regional que sintetiza la se&ntilde;al filogeogr&aacute;fica  de cada especie (Lapointe y Rissler, 2005). Si no hay congruencia topol&oacute;gica entre especies el super&aacute;rbol no tendr&aacute; ning&uacute;n patr&oacute;n. Existen varios m&eacute;todos para hacer super&aacute;rboles (Bininda-Emonds, 2004). En filogeograf&iacute;a  comparada  se han usado tres: MRP (matrix representation with parsimony; Lapointe y Rissler, 2005; Victoriano <i>et al</i>., 2008), SAC (supertree area cladogram) y SCAC (sequence concatenation area cladogram; Weir, 2009). En general se hace lo siguiente: Se dise&ntilde;a una matriz codificando la presencia y ausencia de los linajes de cada especie sobre una subdivisi&oacute;n del &aacute;rea de estudio (e.g. subregiones o una gradilla) y se analiza con parsimonia para encontrar el super&aacute;rbol. Tambi&eacute;n puede hacerse un super&aacute;rbol (poco ortodoxo) acoplando secuencias de ADN de diferentes especies de una misma subregi&oacute;n y haciendo un an&aacute;lisis filogen&eacute;tico (SCAC; Weir, 2009) donde los terminales son las subregiones o los cuadros de la gradilla. Una ventaja de los super&aacute;rboles es que no requieren que todas las especies sean totalmente simp&aacute;tricas (Lapointe y Rissler, 2005), pero solo muestran patrones generales. Estos m&eacute;todos se han implementado en regionalizaciones que buscan identificar &aacute;reas de endemismo (Weir, 2009) y zonas de 'diversificaci&oacute;n activa' (Lapointe y Rissler, 2005) con fines de conservaci&oacute;n.</p>     <p>   Identificar la existencia de barreras geogr&aacute;ficas compartidas entre especies es otra manera de buscar congruencia topol&oacute;gica. Esto se hace identificando divisiones filogeogr&aacute;ficas, en el espacio geogr&aacute;fico,  para cada especie (e.g. SAMOVA o Barrier; Dupanloup <i>et al</i>., 2002; Manni <i>et al</i>., 2004) cuya superposici&oacute;n en un mapa muestra las zonas con divisio- nes compartidas (Jaramillo-Correa <i>et al</i>., 2010). Tambi&eacute;n se puede comparar el grado de diferenciaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica  entre  poblaciones,  de varias especies,  a trav&eacute;s  de barreras geogr&aacute;ficas predefinidas (Turner <i>et al</i>., 1996; Burney y Brumfield, 2009; Weir, 2009) o no (Calsbeek <i>et al</i>., 2003; Soltis <i>et al</i>., 2006), para observar patrones compartidos. Un m&eacute;todo reciente llamado congruence among distance matrices (CADM; Campbell <i>et al</i>., 2011; Roe <i>et al</i>., 2011) permite identificar congruencia global entre varias especies y, a posteriori , congruencia entre pares de especies usando matrices de distancia gen&eacute;tica y   de distancia geogr&aacute;fica al modo de un test de Mantel extendido. Otro m&eacute;todo basado   en el uso de sistemas de informaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica permite dar mayor detalle a la representaci&oacute;n espacial  de  la  diferenciaci&oacute;n  gen&eacute;tica  entre  localidades/poblaciones  usando  la superposici&oacute;n de 'paisajes gen&eacute;ticos', de especies co-distribuidas, creados a partir de un algoritmo de interpolaci&oacute;n espacial y una matriz de distancias gen&eacute;ticas (Vandergast <i>et al</i>., 2010). </p>     <p>Vale anotar que estos m&eacute;todos se basan en distancias gen&eacute;ticas y no en patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos, por lo que carecen de la se&ntilde;al hist&oacute;rica que caracteriza a la filogeograf&iacute;a (Avise, 1992; Templeton, 1998; Avise, 2000; Templeton <i>et al</i>., 2000). Este aspecto hist&oacute;rico  puede integrarse  poniendo  en un mapa la ubicaci&oacute;n de las divergencias topol&oacute;gicas m&aacute;s evidentes de cada especie (Rissler <i>et al</i>., 2006).</p>     <p>   La congruencia temporal ha sido evaluada estimando tiempos de divergencia para los linajes de cada especie y examinando,  luego, si los datajes de diferentes especies est&aacute;n dentro de un periodo semejante (e.g. inicios del Pleistoceno; Sch&auml;uble y Moritz, 2001; Wares y Cunningham,  2001; Calsbeek <i>et al</i>., 2003; Mateos, 2005; Castoe <i>et al</i>., 2009). Como esta aproximaci&oacute;n no tiene rigor estad&iacute;stico Edwards y Beerli, 2000, propusieron usar la distribuci&oacute;n de valores alrededor del valor m&aacute;ximo de verosimilitud que se obtiene usando m&eacute;todos bayesianos de dataje molecular  y as&iacute; detectar la congruencia temporal entre especies. La comparaci&oacute;n  de estas distribuciones entre especies se hace con una prueba de radio-verosimilitud que indica si el tiempo de divergencia de las poblaciones de dos especies es significativamente diferente o no. Sin embargo, existen par&aacute;metros que var&iacute;an entre las especies comparadas como son: el tama&ntilde;o poblacional ancestral, la migraci&oacute;n post-divergencia, la heterogeneidad en tasas evolutivas y la subdivisi&oacute;n en la poblaci&oacute;n ancestral; que dan incertidumbre al dataje de divergencia reciente (Edwards y Beerli, 2000). Por esto Hickerson y colaboradores (Hickerson <i>et al</i>., 2006a; Hickerson <i>et al</i>., 2006b; Hickerson <i>et al</i>., 2007) presentan un m&eacute;todo que considera estos par&aacute;metros al poner a prueba la hip&oacute;tesis de divergencia temporal simult&aacute;nea entre dos poblaciones de varias especies a trav&eacute;s de una misma barrera geogr&aacute;fica. El m&eacute;todo emplea aproximate bayesian computation (ABC) y simulaciones basadas en coalescencia. Este m&eacute;todo b&aacute;sicamente lo que hace es calcular  hiperpar&aacute;metros que describen procesos entre las especies y subpar&aacute;metros que permiten que haya variaci&oacute;n demogr&aacute;fica en cada especie (Hickerson <i>et al</i>., 2006a; Hickerson <i>et al</i>., 2006b; Hickerson <i>et al</i>., 2007; Csill&eacute;ry <i>et al</i>., 2010). Luego simula una serie de datos bajo un modelo (e.g. divergencia sincr&oacute;nica) usando coalescencia y permitiendo variaciones en el tama&ntilde;o poblacional. Con los datos simulados calcula pseudopar&aacute;metros que reiteradamente se comparan  con los par&aacute;metros de los datos reales y se aceptan o rechazar seg&uacute;n un criterio de cercan&iacute;a. Con la muestra de pseudopar&aacute;metros se construye la distribuci&oacute;n a posteriori del hiperpar&aacute;metro deseado que en este caso es el n&uacute;mero de eventos de vicarianza. Lo que destaca al ABC, sobre otros m&eacute;todos, es que permite el an&aacute;lisis de m&uacute;ltiples grupos de datos filogeogr&aacute;ficos simult&aacute;neamente, considerando diferencias demogr&aacute;ficas entre taxones (Carnaval <i>et al</i>., 2009). Su implementaci&oacute;n ha mostrado que entre especies afectadas por una misma barrera geogr&aacute;fica no ha ocurrido un &uacute;nico evento simult&aacute;neo de vicarianza (Hickerson <i>et al</i>., 2006b; Leach&eacute; <i>et al</i>., 2007; Plouviez <i>et al</i>., 2009; Barber y Klicka, 2010; Chan <i>et al</i>., 2011). </p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>   Por &uacute;ltimo, en cuanto a la congruencia demogr&aacute;fica, los an&aacute;lisis demogr&aacute;ficos por lo general indican crecimiento (+) o disminuci&oacute;n (-) en el tama&ntilde;o poblacional  de una especie (Kuhner, 2008), de modo que cualquier sesgo significativo hacia una de las dos posibilidades indicar&iacute;a congruencia demogr&aacute;fica entre especies. La identificaci&oacute;n de un sesgo crecimiento/disminuci&oacute;n puede hacerse usando el sign test, una prueba sencilla comparable a las tablas de contingencia (Smith y Farrell, 2005). Otro modo de poner a prueba hip&oacute;tesis explicitas que involucran aspectos demogr&aacute;ficos entre especies es usar hierarchical approximate bayesian computation (HABC) un m&eacute;todo similar al ABC, que puede integrar m&uacute;ltiples par&aacute;metros (e.g. migraci&oacute;n) para crear modelos evolutivos m&aacute;s flexibles (Hickerson y Meyer, 2008; Carnaval <i>et al</i>., 2009; Chan <i>et al</i>., 2011). Aunque la congruencia demogr&aacute;fica es la menos estudiada en filogeograf&iacute;a comparada, su detecci&oacute;n ha indicado procesos que han afectado comunidades enteras (Wares y Cunningham, 2001; Lessa <i>et al</i>., 2003; Smith y Farrell, 2005; Crandall <i>et al</i>., 2008; Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2008; Lessa <i>et al</i>., 2010). La identificaci&oacute;n de esta congruencia en combinaci&oacute;n  con otros m&eacute;todos fue parte de un elegante estudio con fines de conservaci&oacute;n  en el bosque Atl&aacute;ntico brasilero (Carnaval <i>et al</i>., 2009).</p>     <p><b>GENERALIDADES DEL DISE&Ntilde;O DE LOS ESTUDIOS DE FILOGEOGRAF&Iacute;A COMPARADA</b></p>     <p>Vale la pena decir que uno o varios de estos m&eacute;todos los encontr&eacute; implementados en solo el 20% de los trabajos de filogeograf&iacute;a comparada que revis&eacute; (n = 94). A pesar de que la filogeograf&iacute;a comparada aun tiene un sesgo hacia lo descriptivo los problemas que ha abordado son variados. Los estudios se han realizado con: entre una especie (contraintuitivo, pero es el caso de una especie de salm&oacute;n con poblaciones simp&aacute;tricas alocr&oacute;nicas; Churikov  y Gharrett, 2002) y 55 especies (Calsbeek <i>et al</i>., 2003) en el caso de revisiones de varios trabajos para una regi&oacute;n, siendo incluidas en la mayor&iacute;a de estudios entre dos y cuatro especies. Llama la atenci&oacute;n que estos trabajos han incluido desde especies muy relacionadas filogen&eacute;ticamente (Turner <i>et al</i>., 1996; Dawson <i>et al</i>., 2002; Feldman  y Spicer, 2006) hasta taxones muy diferentes (Taberlet <i>et al</i>., 1998; Calsbeek <i>et al</i>., 2003; Cartens <i>et al</i>., 2005). En cada extremo de esta disparidad taxon&oacute;mica los autores argumentan diferente, diciendo que en los estudios de filogeograf&iacute;a comparada hay que limitar taxon&oacute;mica y ecol&oacute;gicamente las especies estudiadas para poder encontrar patrones compartidos (Feldman y Spicer, 2006) o que mientras m&aacute;s disparidad exista las congruencias encontradas tendr&aacute;n mayor significado (Taberlet <i>et al</i>., 1998; Cartens <i>et al</i>., 2005). Geogr&aacute;ficamente, los estudios van desde locales (Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2008; Guzik <i>et al</i>., 2009) hasta continentales (Zink, 1996; Joseph y Wilke, 2007; Weir, 2009). Tambi&eacute;n hay trabajos estudiando interacciones ecol&oacute;gicas marcadas que a pesar de ser ejemplos de coevoluci&oacute;n  no han mostrado la congruencia filogeogr&aacute;fica esperada entre esas especies (e.g. Parker <i>et al</i>., 2004; Richards <i>et al</i>., 2007; Roe <i>et al</i>., 2011). A pesar de que las secuencias de ADN han sido la fuente principal de datos, se han incluido tambi&eacute;n otros marcadores moleculares como AFLPs y microsat&eacute;lites como parte de la filogeograf&iacute;a comparada (e.g. Calsbeek <i>et al</i>., 2003; Guzik <i>et al</i>., 2009; Maliouchenko <i>et al</i>., 2007), haciendo posible una aproximaci&oacute;n integrativa a varios 'niveles temporales' (Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2008; Garrick <i>et al</i>., 2010; Wegmann <i>et al</i>., 2010). Adicionalmente, &eacute;stos estudios se han complementado usando reconstrucciones paleoecol&oacute;gicas, principalmente  modelos  de nicho ecol&oacute;gico proyectados  en condiciones ambientales del pasado (Joseph <i>et al</i>., 1995; Hugall <i>et al</i>., 2002; Bell <i>et al</i>., 2007; Carstens y Richards, 2007; Solomon <i>et al</i>., 2008; Carnaval <i>et al</i>., 2009; Moussalli <i>et al</i>., 2009; Beatty y Provan, 2011), aunque  es necesario indicar que existen limitaciones de esta &uacute;ltima aproximaci&oacute;n (Nogu&eacute;s-Bravo, 2009)</p>     <p><b>FILOGEOGRAF&Iacute;A DE AVES NEOTROPICALES: UN EJEMPLO DE PATRONES GENERALES EN LA HISTORIA DE UNA BIOTA DIVERSA</b></p>     <p>A pesar de que encontr&eacute; 30 estudios filogeogr&aacute;ficos que incluyen 29 especies pertene- cientes a diez familias y cinco &oacute;rdenes de aves (Brawn <i>et al</i>., 1996; Marks <i>et al</i>., 2002; Gonz&aacute;lez <i>et al</i>., 2003; Garc&iacute;a-Moreno <i>et al</i>., 2004; Lovette, 2004; Sol&oacute;rzano <i>et al</i>., 2004; Cheviron <i>et al</i>., 2005; Aleixo, 2006; Cabanne <i>et al</i>., 2007; Cadena <i>et al</i>., 2007;  Chaves <i>et al</i>., 2007; Nyari, 2007; Bonaccorso <i>et al</i>., 2008; Cabanne <i>et al</i>., 2008; Cort&eacute;s-Rodr&iacute;guez <i>et al</i>., 2008a,b; Miller <i>et al</i>., 2008; Navarro-Sig&uuml;enza <i>et al</i>., 2008; Puebla-Olivares <i>et al</i>., 2008; Weir <i>et al</i>., 2008; Caparroz <i>et al</i>., 2009a; Caparroz <i>et al</i>., 2009b; Mil&aacute; <i>et al</i>., 2009; San&iacute;n <i>et al</i>., 2009; V&aacute;zquez-Miranda <i>et al</i>., 2009; Arbel&aacute;ez-Cort&eacute;s <i>et al</i>., 2010; P&eacute;rez-Em&aacute;n <i>et al</i>., 2010; Cadena <i>et al</i>., 2011; D'Horta <i>et al</i>., 2011; Gonz&aacute;lez <i>et al</i>., 2011), en la mayor&iacute;a de casos la distribuci&oacute;n de estas especies no coincide, impidiendo hacer un an&aacute;lisis filogeogr&aacute;fico comparativo de todas ellas. No obstante existen cinco estudios comparativos (Bates <i>et al</i>., 2003; Bates <i>et al</i>., 2004; Burney y Brumfield, 2009; Weir, 2009; Barber y Klicka, 2010) que incluyen especies adicionales pero aunque su muestreo no es intensivo (ver m&aacute;s adelante) si abordan de manera expl&iacute;cita la filogeograf&iacute;a comparada  de las aves. Por consiguiente, me limitar&eacute; a comentar cualitativamente estos trabajos y a presentar algunos de los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos generales que parecen emerger para la avifauna Neotropical.</p>     <p>   En estos estudios el n&uacute;mero de individuos incluidos var&iacute;a entre 21 y 160. Todos los estudios han usado secuencias de ADNmt, y &uacute;nicamente dos incluyeron tambi&eacute;n secuencias nucleares (Cabanne <i>et al</i>., 2008; D'Horta <i>et al</i>., 2011) y tres usaron otros marcadores moleculares adem&aacute;s de secuencias de ADN (Caparroz <i>et al</i>., 2009a; Mil&aacute; <i>et al</i>., 2009; Gonz&aacute;lez <i>et al</i>., 2011). La escala geogr&aacute;fica va de regional (Gonz&aacute;lez <i>et al</i>., 2003; Chaves <i>et al</i>., 2007; Mil&aacute; <i>et al</i>., 2009) a continental (Marks <i>et al</i>., 2002; Cheviron <i>et al</i>., 2005; Cadena <i>et al</i>., 2007; Nyari, 2007; Weir, 2009). Aqu&iacute; considerar&eacute; las especies como de monta&ntilde;a (&gt;1500 m) o de tierras bajas (&lt;1500 m). Estos ecosistemas, aunque comparten grupos taxon&oacute;micos, representan dos tipos de avifaunas con aspectos ecol&oacute;gicos y evolutivos diferentes (Weir, 2006; Cadena <i>et al</i>., 2007). </p>     <p>   Algunos estudios de filogeograf&iacute;a de aves Neotropicales incluyen dataje molecular (Garc&iacute;a-Moreno <i>et al</i>., 2004; Lovette, 2004; Cheviron <i>et al</i>., 2005; Chaves <i>et al</i>., 2007; Miller <i>et al</i>., 2008; Weir <i>et al</i>., 2008; Caparroz <i>et al</i>., 2009a; Caparroz <i>et al</i>., 2009b; D'Horta <i>et al</i>., 2011; Gonz&aacute;lez <i>et al</i>., 2011) que indican que los linajes intraespec&iacute;ficos de estas especies se originaron  hace entre cinco millones de a&ntilde;os y 40.000 a&ntilde;os, siendo la mayor&iacute;a originados durante los &uacute;ltimos dos millones de a&ntilde;os. Teniendo en cuenta las diferencias entre los m&eacute;todos usados, los datos parecen se&ntilde;alar que los linajes filo-geogr&aacute;ficos de aves Neotropicales se originaron  entre el Plioceno y el Pleistoceno. Precisamente el proceso hist&oacute;rico m&aacute;s com&uacute;nmente considerado para explicar los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos han sido las fluctuaciones clim&aacute;ticas del Cuaternario (Garc&iacute;a-Moreno <i>et al</i>., 2004; Aleixo, 2006; Chaves <i>et al</i>., 2007; Cabanne <i>et al</i>., 2008; Miller <i>et al</i>., 2008; Caparroz <i>et al</i>., 2009b; Arbel&aacute;ez-Cort&eacute;s <i>et al</i>., 2010; P&eacute;rez-Em&aacute;n <i>et al</i>., 2010; D'Horta <i>et al</i>., 2011; Gonz&aacute;lez <i>et al</i>., 2011) que han hecho que los h&aacute;bitats, montanos y de tierras bajas, se fragmenten y promuevan la diferenciaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica entre poblaciones alop&aacute;tricas. Para especies de tierras bajas la formaci&oacute;n de grandes r&iacute;os en Sur Am&eacute;rica (Marks <i>et al</i>., 2002; Bates <i>et al</i>., 2003; Bates <i>et al</i>., 2004; Cheviron <i>et al</i>., 2005; Nyari, 2007; Cabanne <i>et al</i>., 2008) y de cadenas monta&ntilde;osas (Lovette, 2004; Cheviron <i>et al</i>., 2005; Chaves <i>et al</i>., 2007; Mil&aacute; <i>et al</i>., 2009) as&iacute; como incursiones marinas (Brawn <i>et al</i>., 1996; Gonz&aacute;lez <i>et al</i>., 2003; Lovette, 2004) tambi&eacute;n se han considerado como modeladores de su estructura filogeogr&aacute;fica. No obstante, estos procesos no actuaron independientemente pero su efecto es dif&iacute;cil de separar (Cheviron <i>et al</i>., 2005; Cabanne <i>et al</i>., 2007; Cabanne <i>et al</i>., 2008). Adicionalmente, estudios que incluyen datos fenot&iacute;picos y ambientales as&iacute; como informaci&oacute;n de otros marcadores moleculares han permitido identificar otros procesos, como selecci&oacute;n natural o diferencias  en flujo g&eacute;nico entre machos  y hembras  (Chaves <i>et al</i>., 2007; Caparroz <i>et al</i>., 2009a; Mil&aacute; <i>et al</i>., 2009; Gonz&aacute;lez <i>et al</i>., 2011) como parte de la historia de estas aves. Finalmente, hay evidencia de crecimiento demogr&aacute;fico reciente de varias especies de aves (Cheviron <i>et al</i>., 2005; Aleixo, 2006; Cabanne <i>et al</i>., 2008; CortesRodr&iacute;guez <i>et al</i>., 2008; Caparroz <i>et al</i>., 2009b;  P&eacute;rez-Em&aacute;n <i>et al</i>., 2010) que es interpretado como una respuesta a cambios ambientales 'favorables'. Tambi&eacute;n  se han se&ntilde;alado los Andes (Cheviron <i>et al</i>., 2005; Miller <i>et al</i>., 2008; Mil&aacute; <i>et al</i>., 2009), y las tierras bajas del Istmo de Tehuantepec (Cadena <i>et al</i>., 2007; Cort&eacute;s-Rodr&iacute;guez <i>et al</i>., 2008; P&eacute;rez-Em&aacute;n <i>et al</i>., 2010) como barreras para especies de tierras bajas y montanas, respectivamente. No obstante el efecto de esas barreras  no ha sido igual para todas las especies (Marks <i>et al</i>., 2002; Miller <i>et al</i>., 2008; Arbel&aacute;ez-Cort&eacute;s <i>et al</i>., 2010).</p>     <p>   Algunas de las especies estudiadas tienen distribuciones geogr&aacute;ficas compartidas que permiten comparar  sus patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos con detalle. Por ejemplo, hay tres especies de monta&ntilde;a, con datos filogeogr&aacute;ficos para M&eacute;xico  y Centro Am&eacute;rica. Estas especies son: Arremon brunneinucha (Cadena <i>et al</i>., 2007; Navarro-Sig&uuml;enza <i>et al</i>., 2008), Chlorospingus ophthalmicus (Garc&iacute;a-Moreno <i>et al</i>., 2004; Bonaccorso <i>et al</i>., 2008; Weir <i>et al</i>., 2008) y Lepidocolaptes affinis (Arbel&aacute;ez-Cort&eacute;s <i>et al</i>., 2010); y a pesar de ser simp&aacute;tricas su congruencia topol&oacute;gica es poca.  Solo ciertos detalles, para M&eacute;xico, como el aislamiento del macizo de los Tuxtlas y del norte de la sierra Madre del Sur coinciden,  pero la diferenciaci&oacute;n de la sierra Madre Oriental observada en A. brunneinucha y C. ophthalmicus no es evidente en L. affinis. Para Centro Am&eacute;rica el istmo de Tehuantepec es importante en la diferenciaci&oacute;n  de A. brunneinucha y C. ophthalmicus, pero para L. affinis la depresi&oacute;n de Nicaragua  es la barrera m&aacute;s clara. Estos resultados son esperados por diferentes razones, seg&uacute;n discut&iacute; al principio. No obstante en este caso la falta de congruencia topol&oacute;gica podr&iacute;a deberse a un factor que no se ha considerado previamente, y es que las unidades taxon&oacute;micas no son comparables, por ejemplo como resultado de estos an&aacute;lisis A. brunneinucha y C. ophthalmicus parecen representan m&aacute;s de una especie (e.g., Garc&iacute;a-Moreno <i>et al</i>., 2004; Cadena <i>et al</i>., 2007). </p>     <p>   Finalmente,  existen  al menos cinco estudios  de filogeograf&iacute;a  comparada  de aves Neotropicales que examinan los niveles de diferenciaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica entre poblaciones (Bates <i>et al</i>., 2004; Bates <i>et al</i>., 2003; Burney y Brumfield, 2009; Weir, 2009, Barber y Klicka, 2010); aunque en tres de ellos no se ponen  a prueba hip&oacute;tesis de congruencia entre especies. Estos estudios encontraron que, para las especies de monta&ntilde;a, las tierras bajas (e.g. valle del r&iacute;o Mara&ntilde;&oacute;n en Per&uacute; e istmo de Tehuantepec en M&eacute;xico; Weir, 2009; Barber y Klicka, 2010) afectan su patr&oacute;n filogeogr&aacute;fico pero que no necesariamente la vicarianza a trav&eacute;s de estas barreras fue sincr&oacute;nica. Para aves de tierras bajas se encontr&oacute; que las diferencias gen&eacute;ticas a trav&eacute;s de cadenas monta&ntilde;osas y de r&iacute;os se relacionan bastante con la ecolog&iacute;a de las especies, siendo las aves de dosel las que presentan menor diferenciaci&oacute;n  (Burney y Brumfield, 2009). Para especies de zonas menos boscosas (e.g. el cerrado entre Brasil y Bolivia) se encontr&oacute; poca diferenciaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica, a pesar de una gran separaci&oacute;n geogr&aacute;fica, que es atribuida a alto flujo g&eacute;nico o a una expansi&oacute;n poblacional  reciente (Bates <i>et al</i>., 2003). Aunque patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos compartidos como estos empiezan a emerger para las aves Neotropicales; la representaci&oacute;n en estos trabajos de grupos diversos y representativos del Neotr&oacute;pico, como por ejemplo las tangaras (familia Thraupidae),  es pr&aacute;cticamente nula. Por lo tanto los patrones filogeogr&aacute;ficos que est&aacute;n emergiendo podr&iacute;an no ser generales.</p>     <p><b>CONCLUSI&Oacute;N</b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>La filogeograf&iacute;a comparada se ha establecido como uno de los campos m&aacute;s activos de investigaci&oacute;n en evoluci&oacute;n reciente de las biotas. A pesar de que sus conclusiones  se han basado principalmente en comparaciones  cualitativas existe ahora un grupo de m&eacute;todos que permiten poner a prueba, expl&iacute;citamente, hip&oacute;tesis sobre la historia compartida de especies simp&aacute;tricas. Los estudios filogeogr&aacute;ficos de la avifauna Neotropical empiezan a mostrar patrones compartidos entre especies. Sin embargo  el n&uacute;mero de estos trabajos es muy bajo en comparaci&oacute;n con la diversidad de esta regi&oacute;n. La combinaci&oacute;n de  diferentes  m&eacute;todos  e  informaci&oacute;n, dentro  del  marco de  la filogeograf&iacute;a comparada, resultar&aacute; en un entendimiento detallado de la historia de las comunidades permitiendo conocer aspectos relacionados con su estabilidad y con su respuesta a cambios ambientales o procesos hist&oacute;ricos que han dejado indicios en el patr&oacute;n filogeogr&aacute;fico de sus especies.</p>     <p><b>AGRADECIMIENTOS</b></p>     <p>Agradezco al CONACyT-M&eacute;xico por una beca de estudios de posgrado (n&uacute;mero de becario: 210543). Agradezco, tambi&eacute;n, a Susana Magall&oacute;n-Puebla por plantearme y discutir conmigo algunas de las ideas presentes en este manuscrito.</p>     <p><b>BIBLIOGRAF&Iacute;A</b></p>     <!-- ref --><p>ALBACH DC, SCH&Ouml;NSWETTER P, TRIBSCH A. Comparative phylogeography of the   Veronica   alpina  complex   in   Europe   and  North   America.   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