<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0121-0807</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista de la Universidad Industrial de Santander. Salud]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Rev. Univ. Ind. Santander. Salud]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0121-0807</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Industrial de Santander]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0121-08072016000200003</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.18273/revsal.v48n2-2016001</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Alteraciones en el vínculo materno- infantil: prevalencia, factores de riesgo, criterios diagnósticos y estrategias de evaluación]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Mother-infant bonding disorders: prevalence, risk factors, diagnostic criteria and assessment strategies]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Palacios-Hernández]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Bruma]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="AFF"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="AF1">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>México</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2016</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2016</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>48</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<fpage>164</fpage>
<lpage>176</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0121-08072016000200003&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0121-08072016000200003&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0121-08072016000200003&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[La interacción temprana entre una madre y su bebé durante el primer año de posparto, se centra en la respuesta emocional materna que determina el vínculo materno-infantil, considerado éste un importante mediador en el desarrollo psicosocial del infante. Alteraciones en esta vinculación temprana se asocian a importantes consecuencias en el infante a nivel cognitivo, social, de salud mental y con riesgo de maltrato, abuso infantil y hasta infanticidio. Los factores de riesgo para una alteración en el vínculo materno-infantil incluyen factores de la madre, del bebé, del embarazo, parto y posparto y del ambiente social. El estudio de los aspectos psicosociales de la relación temprana entre una madre y su infante, ha sido de principal interés en países desarrollados; sin embargo, en Latinoamérica la investigación es aún muy escasa. En la presente revisión se exploran las características del vínculo materno-infantil, sus factores de riesgo y consecuencias negativas más asociadas, así como una identificación de las estrategias de evaluación más usadas en diferentes países. La detección temprana de una problemática del vínculo materno-infantil es una estrategia fundamental para diseñar intervenciones de salud específicas y pertinentes que disminuyan las consecuencias adversas y promuevan el bienestar de la diada madre-bebé y su ámbito familiar.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[The early relationship between a mother and her baby during the first year after childbirth is focused in the maternal affective response which is the base of the mother-infant bonding, considered an important mediator in the psychosocial child development. Early bonding difficulties are associated to negative consequences in the infant&#39;s cognitive, social and mental health development and a high risk for child maltreatment, abuse and infanticide. Risk factors for a mother-infant bonding disorder include aspects related to the mother, the baby, pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum and the social environment. The study of the psychosocial aspects of the early relationship between a mother and her baby is of main interest in developed countries, nevertheless the research on this topic in LatinAmerica is still very limited. In the present review it is explored the characteristics of a mother-infant bonding, its main risk factors and most relevant negative consequences, as well as the most popular assessment strategies used among the countries. The early detection of a mother-infant bonding disorder is a decisive strategy to allow the design of specific and relevant health interventions that can reduce the adverse consequences and promote the wellbeing of the mother-infant dyad and its family.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Vínculo materno-infantil]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[salud mental materna]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Latinoamérica]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[instrumentos de medición]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Mother-infant bonding]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[maternal mental health]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[LatinAmerica]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[assessment measures]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[   <font size="2" face="Verdana">      <p align="left"><b>DOI:</b> <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.18273/revsal.v48n2-2016001" target="_blank">http://dx.doi.org/10.18273/revsal.v48n2-2016001</a></p>      <p align="center"><font size="4"><b>Alteraciones en el v&iacute;nculo materno-    <br> infantil: prevalencia, factores    <br> de riesgo, criterios diagn&oacute;sticos    <br> y estrategias de evaluaci&oacute;n</b></font></p>      <p align="center">Bruma Palacios-Hern&aacute;ndez<sup>1</sup></p> 	     <p align="left">1. Universidad Aut&oacute;noma del Estado de Morelos. M&eacute;xico.    <br> <b>Correspondencia:</b> Bruma Palacios-Hern&aacute;ndez. <b>Direcci&oacute;n:</b> Pico de Orizaba 1, Col. Los Volcanes. C.P. 62350. Cuernavaca, Morelos. M&eacute;xico. <b>Correo electr&oacute;nico:</b> <a href="mailto:brumaph@hotmail.com">brumaph@hotmail.com</a>. <b>Tel&eacute;fono:</b> (52) 7773297970.    <br>    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br> <b>Recibido:</b> diciembre 30 de 2015 <b>Aprobado:</b> febrero 5 de 2016</p>  <hr>      <p align="justify"><b>Forma de citar:</b> Palacios Hern&aacute;ndez B. Alteraciones en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil: prevalencia, factores de riesgo, criterios diagn&oacute;sticos y estrategias de evaluaci&oacute;n. Rev Univ Ind Santander Salud. 2016; 48(2): 164-176.</p>  <hr>      <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>RESUMEN</b></font></p> 	     <p align="justify">La interacci&oacute;n temprana entre una madre y su beb&eacute; durante el primer a&ntilde;o de posparto, se centra en la respuesta emocional materna que determina el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil, considerado &eacute;ste un importante mediador en el desarrollo psicosocial del infante. Alteraciones en esta vinculaci&oacute;n temprana se asocian a importantes consecuencias en el infante a nivel cognitivo, social, de salud mental y con riesgo de maltrato, abuso infantil y hasta infanticidio. Los factores de riesgo para una alteraci&oacute;n en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil incluyen factores de la madre, del beb&eacute;, del embarazo, parto y posparto y del ambiente social. El estudio de los aspectos psicosociales de la relaci&oacute;n temprana entre una madre y su infante, ha sido de principal inter&eacute;s en pa&iacute;ses desarrollados; sin embargo, en Latinoam&eacute;rica la investigaci&oacute;n es a&uacute;n muy escasa. En la presente revisi&oacute;n se exploran las caracter&iacute;sticas del v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil, sus factores de riesgo y consecuencias negativas m&aacute;s asociadas, as&iacute; como una identificaci&oacute;n de las estrategias de evaluaci&oacute;n m&aacute;s usadas en diferentes pa&iacute;ses. La detecci&oacute;n temprana de una problem&aacute;tica del v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil es una estrategia fundamental para dise&ntilde;ar intervenciones de salud espec&iacute;ficas y pertinentes que disminuyan las consecuencias adversas y promuevan el bienestar de la diada madre-beb&eacute; y su &aacute;mbito familiar.</p> 	     <p align="justify"><b>Palabras clave:</b> V&iacute;nculo materno-infantil, salud mental materna, Latinoam&eacute;rica, instrumentos de medici&oacute;n.</p>      <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>Mother-infant bonding disorders: prevalence, risk factors,    <br> diagnostic criteria and assessment strategies</b></font></p> 		     <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>ABSTRACT</b></font></p> 	     <p align="justify">The early relationship between a mother and her baby during the first year after childbirth is focused in the maternal affective response which is the base of the mother-infant bonding, considered an important mediator in the psychosocial child development. Early bonding difficulties are associated to  negative consequences in the infant&#39;s cognitive, social and mental health development and a high risk for child maltreatment, abuse and infanticide. Risk factors for a mother-infant bonding disorder include aspects related to the mother, the baby, pregnancy, childbirth and postpartum and the social environment. The study of the psychosocial aspects of the early relationship between a mother and her baby is of main interest in developed countries, nevertheless the research on this topic in LatinAmerica is still very limited. In the present review it is explored the characteristics of a mother-infant bonding, its main risk factors and most relevant negative consequences, as well as the most popular assessment strategies used among the countries. The early detection of a mother-infant bonding disorder is a decisive strategy to allow the design of specific and relevant health interventions that can reduce the adverse consequences and promote the wellbeing of the mother-infant dyad and its family.</p> 	     <p align="justify"><b>Keywords:</b> Mother-infant bonding, maternal mental health, LatinAmerica, assessment measures.</p>  <hr>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="center"><font size="3"><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>      <p align="justify">El procrear un beb&eacute; no garantiza una respuesta maternal en la mujer que permita la supervivencia del infante y su desarrollo psicosocial. Es necesaria una vinculaci&oacute;n afectiva entre la madre y su reci&eacute;n nacido denominada <i>v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil</i> que incluya una relaci&oacute;n rec&iacute;proca, favorable y significativa entre ambos<sup>1</sup>. Para Brockington<sup>2</sup> la relaci&oacute;n entre una madre y su beb&eacute; es uno de los procesos psicol&oacute;gicos m&aacute;s importantes que se desarrollan despu&eacute;s del parto. Si la vinculaci&oacute;n materna con el beb&eacute; se altera puede generar consecuencias negativas de gran importancia para el bienestar psicosocial, principalmente del infante con efectos negativos de mediano y largo plazo en su desarrollo<sup>3</sup>. Algunas de las consecuencias negativas en el infante incluyen afectaciones en la adaptaci&oacute;n y <i>autoregulaci&oacute;n emocional</i><sup>4,5</sup> as&iacute; como en el <i>temperamento infantil</i> y la <i>regulaci&oacute;n del estr&eacute;s</i><sup>6</sup>, el <i>desarrollo cognitivo</i><sup>7</sup> y del <i>lenguaje</i><sup>8</sup>, en la <i>adaptaci&oacute;n social</i><sup>3,9</sup>, el <i>desarrollo funcional</i> y <i>biol&oacute;gico cerebral</i><sup>10</sup>, el <i>tipo de apego infantil</i><sup>11</sup> que condicionar&aacute; sus interacciones sociales y el desarrollo de psicopatolog&iacute;a en <i>la infancia y adolescencia</i><sup>12</sup>. En casos de v&iacute;nculos materno-infantil gravemente alterados, el beb&eacute; es expuesto a la agresi&oacute;n materna, con riesgo de <i>negligencia grave, abuso, y maltrato infantil</i><sup>3</sup>, con consecuencias duraderas f&iacute;sicas, emocionales y psicopatol&oacute;gicas<sup>13</sup> y en casos extremos riesgo de <i>infanticidio</i><sup>14</sup> seguido frecuentemente por el suicidio materno<sup>15,16</sup>. A su vez, existe evidencia de que una vinculaci&oacute;n temprana favorable entre la madre y su beb&eacute; puede disminuir el impacto de factores adversos en el desarrollo infantil, como por ejemplo la reducci&oacute;n del efecto negativo que una exposici&oacute;n <i>in utero</i> de cortisol (producida por estr&eacute;s materno) tiene asociado a un desarrollo cognitivo alterado en el infante<sup>17</sup>.</p>      <p align="justify">La confirmaci&oacute;n de consecuencias negativas en el desarrollo psicosocial de infantes que han experimentado un trastorno en su relaci&oacute;n afectiva temprana con su madre, han impulsado el estudio de la vinculaci&oacute;n materno-infantil en los &uacute;ltimos 30 a&ntilde;os. En la presente revisi&oacute;n exploraremos los hallazgos cient&iacute;ficos m&aacute;s relevantes sobre la prevalencia de este tipo de trastornos, los factores de riesgo asociados, criterios para su diagn&oacute;stico cl&iacute;nico y algunas de las estrategias de evaluaci&oacute;n m&aacute;s utilizadas a lo largo del mundo. Asimismo, presentamos una breve descripci&oacute;n del estado de investigaci&oacute;n en Latinoam&eacute;rica sobre este campo y sus principales retos.</p>      <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>DEFINICI&Oacute;N Y EVOLUCI&Oacute;N DEL CONCEPTO</b></font></p>      <p align="justify">Broad, et al.<sup>18</sup> describieron que dada la indefensi&oacute;n y vulnerabilidad del reci&eacute;n nacido, la vinculaci&oacute;n afectiva entre madre y beb&eacute; representa una interacci&oacute;n social fundamental para la supervivencia del beb&eacute;, cuya respuesta materna es facilitada por mecanismos hormonales, de recompensa cerebral y reconocimiento sensorial. El contacto piel con piel y el amamantamiento promueven la liberaci&oacute;n de oxitocina en las madres despu&eacute;s del parto que tranquiliza a la madre y la hace m&aacute;s receptiva hacia su beb&eacute;<sup>19,20,21</sup>. Sin embargo, los procesos fisiol&oacute;gicos no garantizan una respuesta maternal favorable hacia el reci&eacute;n nacido pues &eacute;sta requiere adicionalmente de conductas y respuestas afectivas, desarrolladas en circunstancias espec&iacute;ficas no determinadas inherentemente por un patr&oacute;n conductual instintivo<sup>1</sup>. Stern, et al.<sup>22</sup> sugirieron que la mujer requiere desarrollar una nueva configuraci&oacute;n psicol&oacute;gica que le permita la reorganizaci&oacute;n de su identidad para asumir un nuevo rol como madre. Winnicot<sup>23</sup> llam&oacute; <i>&quot;preocupaci&oacute;n primaria maternal&quot;</i> a un estado psicol&oacute;gico durante el embarazo dirigido al infante a&uacute;n no nacido, que ser&aacute; fundamental para una adecuada vinculaci&oacute;n afectiva entre madre y reci&eacute;n nacido<sup>3</sup>.</p>      <p align="justify">El desarrollo de John Bowlby<sup>24,25</sup> y sus futuros colaboradores<sup>26</sup> de una <i>teor&iacute;a del apego</i>, atrajo la atenci&oacute;n hacia el estudio de las relaciones tempranas entre los progenitores y sus infantes. Para Bowlby<sup>25</sup> un comportamiento de apego es un <i>aspecto espec&iacute;fico y circunscrito de la relaci&oacute;n entre un infante y su cuidador principal que tiene como objetivo el hacer sentir al beb&eacute; seguro, a salvo y protegido</i>. El apego ser&aacute; una conducta fundamental que permitir&aacute; la supervivencia del infante<sup>24</sup> y proteger&aacute; al beb&eacute; de cualquier situaci&oacute;n que ponga en riesgo su bienestar, brind&aacute;ndole una figura que act&uacute;e como una base segura en la cual resguardarse en caso de ser necesario y tambi&eacute;n fomente la exploraci&oacute;n de su medio ambiente. El proceso ser&aacute; exitoso, si los padres son sensibles en identificar y entender las necesidades y el estado emocional de su beb&eacute;, para lograr disminuir la frustraci&oacute;n y ansiedad del beb&eacute; originada por la interacci&oacute;n con el medio ambiente ofreciendo una base segura cuando la requiera. Esta conducta evolucionar&aacute; en patrones de conducta organizados que se mantendr&aacute;n estables a lo largo de la vida del infante afectando su desarrollo y las interacciones sociales futuras<sup>18,24,26</sup>.</p>      <p align="justify">Posteriormente el inter&eacute;s se centr&oacute; en las interacciones m&aacute;s tempranas entre madre y beb&eacute;, cuando el beb&eacute; a&uacute;n es incapaz de reaccionar de forma organizada con una conducta de apego hacia su cuidador. Esta temprana interacci&oacute;n fue definida por Klaus y Kennell<sup>27</sup> como <i>&quot;vinculaci&oacute;n&quot;</i> entre una madre y su beb&eacute;, centr&aacute;ndose en la respuesta emocional materna. Aunque los conceptos de <i>apego y vinculaci&oacute;n materno-infantil</i> analizan la diada madre-beb&eacute;, no son sin&oacute;nimos pues se centran en diferentes procesos y momentos de la <i>relaci&oacute;n. La vinculaci&oacute;n materno-infantil refiere a la relaci&oacute;n temprana entre una madre y su infante cuya principal caracter&iacute;stica es la respuesta emocional materna hacia su beb&eacute;</i><sup>3,28</sup> durante el primer a&ntilde;o de vida del beb&eacute;<sup>29</sup>. El apego es un proceso posterior centrado en la reacci&oacute;n del infante ya organizada en un patr&oacute;n estable dirigida hacia el cuidador principal<sup>3,28,30</sup>. La cercan&iacute;a de ambos conceptos suele generar confusi&oacute;n sobre todo cuando la definici&oacute;n del <i>v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil</i> a&uacute;n muestra una evoluci&oacute;n conceptual, lo cual representa un reto para su evaluaci&oacute;n y estudio.</p>      <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>CRITERIOS DIAGN&Oacute;STICOS</b></font></p>      <p align="justify">Hasta la fecha no existe una <i>alteraci&oacute;n o trastorno en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil</i> reconocido como desorden psicol&oacute;gico en ninguna de las dos clasificaciones diagn&oacute;sticas m&aacute;s usadas en salud mental: el Manual Diagn&oacute;stico y Estad&iacute;stico de Trastornos Mentales &#91;DSM-5&#93;<sup>31</sup> y la Clasificaci&oacute;n Estad&iacute;stica Internacional de Enfermedades de la Organizaci&oacute;n Mundial de la Salud &#91;ICD-10&#93;<sup>32</sup>.</p>      <p align="justify">El DSM-5<sup>31</sup> &uacute;nicamente identifica trastornos del apego observado en infantes desde los 9 meses hasta los 9 a&ntilde;os, centr&aacute;ndose en la sintomatolog&iacute;a visible en el ni&ntilde;o y no en el padre (<i>Trastorno de apego reactivo</i>, C&oacute;digo F94.1). El ICD-10<sup>32</sup> cuenta con un diagn&oacute;stico semejante al DSM-5, referido como <i>trastorno de vinculaci&oacute;n en la infancia reactivo</i> (C&oacute;digo F94.1). Lo m&aacute;s cercano a una alteraci&oacute;n en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil centrada en la conducta del progenitor se identifica en el DSM-5 que propone la evaluaci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica de <i>problemas de relaci&oacute;n entre un padres e hijos</i> (C&oacute;digo V61.20/Z62.820) como una condici&oacute;n que puede ser de inter&eacute;s cl&iacute;nico sin considerarlo un trastorno mental. El problema entre un hijo y su cuidador principal, debe generar un efecto negativo en la salud del infante asociados a maltrato infantil o negligencia, con consecuencias m&eacute;dicas y psicol&oacute;gicas significativas para el hijo (p.e. abuso f&iacute;sico infantil, negligencia infantil o abuso psicol&oacute;gico infantil) sin aportar criterios diagn&oacute;sticos para su diagn&oacute;stico cl&iacute;nico. Lo m&aacute;s cercano al reconocimiento de un desorden relacionado con el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil se encuentra en la Clasificaci&oacute;n Diagn&oacute;stica de Salud Mental y Trastornos del Desarrollo de la Infancia y la Temprana Infancia (Cero a Tres) de la Asociaci&oacute;n Americana de Psicolog&iacute;a &#91;DC:0-3R&#93;<sup>33</sup>. El DC:0-3R permite diagnosticar un involucramiento <i>excesivo, deficiente, ansioso, hostil o abusivo</i> de los padres con sus infantes.</p>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify">Estudios<sup>3,34</sup> han descrito que una alteraci&oacute;n del v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil, puede presentarse en diversos niveles desde el <i>retraso, la ambivalencia o carencia de respuesta afectiva materna</i>, hasta el <i>rechazo materno, o ira y hostilidad</i> hacia el beb&eacute;, asociados en sus formas extremas con el maltrato y abuso infantil. Basados en evidencia cient&iacute;fica y amplia experiencia cl&iacute;nica Brockington<sup>3</sup>, Aucaump &amp; Fraser<sup>35</sup>, sugirieron criterios diagn&oacute;sticos espec&iacute;ficos para identificar un trastorno en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil (<a href="#t01">TABLA 1</a>). Ante la carencia de una definici&oacute;n internacionalmente aceptada y basado en la revisi&oacute;n de las aportaciones de investigaciones previas, una <b>alteraci&oacute;n en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil</b> puede definirse como: <i>una alteraci&oacute;n en la respuesta emocional materna hacia el beb&eacute; presente en la interacci&oacute;n temprana entre ambos posterior al parto y durante el primer a&ntilde;o del posparto</i>.</p>      <p align="center"><a name="t01"></a><img src="img/revistas/suis/v48n2/v48n2a03t1.jpg"></p>      <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>FACTORES DE RIESGO</b></font></p>      <p align="justify">El parto y el posparto suelen ser experiencias estresantes para una mujer que exigen esfuerzos f&iacute;sicos, psicol&oacute;gicos y emocionales extraordinarios para atender las demandas que el cuidado de un reci&eacute;n nacido requiere. Durante la temprana interacci&oacute;n madrebeb&eacute;, ciertos factores adicionales al estr&eacute;s propio del posparto, pueden alterar de forma negativa el proceso. Los factores de riesgo m&aacute;s frecuentemente asociados a una alteraci&oacute;n vincular incluyen factores de la <i>madre</i>, del <i>beb&eacute;</i>, del <i>embarazo, el parto y el posparto y del ambiente social</i>.</p>      <p align="justify">Dentro de los factores relacionados con la madre, se encuentran la presencia de psicopatologia materna<i>2,36,37</i>, experiencias negativas pasadas con los propios padres<i>30,38,39</i>, edad joven materna<sup>1</sup>, bajo nivel de educaci&oacute;n<sup>40</sup>, bajo nivel socioecon&oacute;mico<sup>41</sup>, embarazo no deseado<sup>3,9,30,42</sup> y falta de apego prenatal con el feto<sup>3,43</sup>.</p>      <p align="justify">Entre los <i>factores relacionados con el beb&eacute;</i> m&aacute;s relevantes, se encuentran condiciones m&eacute;dicas severas sufridas por el beb&eacute;, incluyendo anormalidades, prematuridad, bajo peso al nacer o un temperamento dif&iacute;cil<sup>44-46</sup>. El orden de nacimiento del beb&eacute; tambi&eacute;n es relevante. Se ha identificado que madres primerizas reportan mayores dificultades en la interacci&oacute;n temprana, ya sea por la inexperiencia o por altos niveles de ansiedad y preocupaciones sobre el cuidado infantil<sup>47</sup>, as&iacute; como presentan un mayor retraso de la respuesta emocional positiva hacia el beb&eacute;<sup>48</sup> y tambi&eacute;n descripciones m&aacute;s negativas de sus beb&eacute;s<sup>49</sup> que madres mult&iacute;paras. El sexo femenino del beb&eacute; ha sido tambi&eacute;n un factor negativo para la vinculaci&oacute;n temprana materno-infantil<sup>50,51</sup>, asociado a aspectos socioculturales en donde existen mayores desventajas relacionadas con el g&eacute;nero observado en ciertos pa&iacute;ses<sup>52</sup>.</p>      <p align="justify">Procesos propios del <i>embarazo, el parto y el posparto</i> tambi&eacute;n se encuentran asociados a alteraciones del v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil. Uno de los m&aacute;s relevantes es la <i>lactancia materna</i>, identificada tanto como un factor de protecci&oacute;n como de riesgo. La lactancia materna se ha asociado de forma positiva al facilitar una mayor respuesta y sensibilidad materna hacia el beb&eacute;<sup>53</sup> y facilitar la vinculaci&oacute;n emocional<sup>54</sup>. Sin embargo, la lactancia materna tambi&eacute;n puede transformarse en un factor de riesgo siendo considerada la cesaci&oacute;n temprana o ausencia como un s&iacute;ntoma temprano de dificultades en la vinculaci&oacute;n madre-beb&eacute;<sup>55</sup>. La no lactancia tambi&eacute;n ha mostrado una asociaci&oacute;n cercana con la salud mental materna particularmente afectada por la depresi&oacute;n y ansiedad<sup>55-57</sup>. Estudios han reportado una interrelaci&oacute;n entre la depresi&oacute;n materna, la no lactancia y dificultades en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil<sup>49</sup>. El tipo y la experiencia del embarazo y del parto, sobre todo si fueron experimentados como una experiencia traum&aacute;tica, es otro factor de riesgo para la vinculaci&oacute;n afectiva entre una madre y su beb&eacute;<sup>3,30,58,59</sup>. Finalmente el medio ambiente social con un bajo apoyo social y la falta de apoyo o problemas con la pareja son factores de riesgo para una alteraci&oacute;n vincular temprana<sup>1,30,45,59</sup>.</p>      <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>PREVALENCIA</b></font></p>      <p align="justify">El principal reto para estimar la prevalencia de alteraciones en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil entre diferentes grupos y pa&iacute;ses es la heterogeneidad de instrumentos y estrategias de evaluaci&oacute;n, as&iacute; como de diferentes momentos de estudio durante el primer a&ntilde;o del posparto. La identificaci&oacute;n de la prevalencia de alteraciones en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil ha sido hecha en su mayor&iacute;a en pa&iacute;ses desarrollados. Evidencia cient&iacute;fica ha identificado una clara asociaci&oacute;n entre la salud mental materna con la calidad de la interacci&oacute;n temprana entre madre y beb&eacute;, el bienestar del beb&eacute; y el desarrollo psicosocial con consecuencias relevantes a largo plazo<sup>2,5,37</sup>. Estudios que han utilizado los mismos instrumentos de evaluaci&oacute;n<sup>60-62</sup> confirman una mayor prevalencia de trastornos del v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil (22-67&#37;) en madres con diversos trastornos mentales<sup>5,35,60,61,63</sup> que en madres de poblaci&oacute;n general (7-9&#37;)<sup>64-66</sup>.</p>      <p align="justify">La evidencia en madres de pa&iacute;ses en v&iacute;as de desarrollo y en particular de Latinoam&eacute;rica es a&uacute;n escasa. Una revisi&oacute;n de literatura en el tema de v&iacute;nculo maternoinfantil report&oacute; 2597 art&iacute;culos publicados hasta el 11 de enero del 2016 (a&ntilde;os 1962-2016) con un incremento significativo en los &uacute;ltimos 10 a&ntilde;os (n=1241) que representan casi la mitad de la producci&oacute;n cient&iacute;fica total (<i>Base de datos: SCOPUS; palabras claves: mother-infant bonding (OR) mother-infant early relationship (OR) mother-infant interaction (OR) mother-infant bonding disorder</i>). Estados Unidos de Am&eacute;rica (n=1128), el Reino Unido (n=217) y Canad&aacute; (n=158) son los pa&iacute;ses que m&aacute;s estudios han publicado sobre la tem&aacute;tica identific&aacute;ndose una muy baja producci&oacute;n cient&iacute;fica en Latinoam&eacute;rica con s&oacute;lo 77 art&iacute;culos realizados en esta regi&oacute;n (3&#37; de la producci&oacute;n mundial) en el periodo evaluado. Excluyendo a los estudios que fueron realizados en poblaciones externas  a la region, se identific&oacute; producci&oacute;n cient&iacute;fica en s&oacute;lo 10 pa&iacute;ses de Latinoam&eacute;rica siendo Brasil (n=37, 48.1&#37;), Chile (n=12, 15.6&#37;) y M&eacute;xico (n=9, 11.7&#37;) los principales pa&iacute;ses que reportan investigaci&oacute;n en el campo.</p>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="justify">Estos datos sugieren un retraso significativo en la producci&oacute;n cient&iacute;fica, sobre la vinculaci&oacute;n temprana entre una madre y su beb&eacute; en estudios con poblaciones latinoamericanas, lo cual dificulta el conocimiento sobre la dimensi&oacute;n de alteraciones en este proceso as&iacute; como de los factores de riesgo relevantes en estos pa&iacute;ses. Por otra parte, aunque la <i>salud materna fue uno de los 8 objetivos de desarrollo del Milenio</i> estipulados por la Organizaci&oacute;n de las Naciones Unidas (ONU), no se incorpor&oacute; la atenci&oacute;n a la salud mental materna como parte de las prioridades estrat&eacute;gicas de mejoramiento de la salud de las madres o los infantes<sup>67</sup>. La ONU ha identificado en 2015 desigualdades significativas en Latinoam&eacute;rica en: <i>el acceso y uso de servicios de salud reproductiva entre las zonas urbanas y rurales, una alta prevalencia de embarazos en adolescentes, un incremento de m&aacute;s mujeres que hombres en hogares pobres y una desigualdad en la disponibilidad de informaci&oacute;n relacionada con salud materna</i> que dificultan el establecimiento de prioridades de salud ocasionados por una disparidad sanitaria entre pa&iacute;ses y entre los grupos vulnerables por su situaci&oacute;n social, econ&oacute;mica, de educaci&oacute;n, edad o lugar de residencia<sup>67</sup>. Estos determinantes sociales constituyen riesgos para la salud mental de la madre y su vinculaci&oacute;n temprana con su beb&eacute; desconociendo en gran medida su efecto a corto y largo plazo en poblaciones latinoamericanas.</p>      <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>EVALUACI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>      <p align="justify">Las estrategias de evaluaci&oacute;n que permiten evaluar e investigar las dificultades en la interacci&oacute;n temprana entre una madre y su beb&eacute; se pueden clasificar en a) autoreportes, b) entrevistas cl&iacute;nicas especializadas o listas de puntajes con evaluadores externos (enfermeras o profesionistas de la salud mental) y, c) evaluaciones interactivas y/o de observaci&oacute;n directa para evaluar a la diada madre-beb&eacute; videograbadas u observadas en escenarios cl&iacute;nicos o en casa. La evaluaci&oacute;n m&aacute;s usada en &aacute;mbitos cl&iacute;nicos y de investigaci&oacute;n es el <i>autoreporte</i> por su f&aacute;cil uso e interpretaci&oacute;n identificando de la fuente principal la respuesta emocional materna hacia su beb&eacute;. Los autoreportes m&aacute;s usados a nivel mundial, detallados en la <a href="#t02">TABLA 2</a>, muestran que s&oacute;lo un instrumento ha sido validado en Brasil<sup>68</sup> lo cual refleja una escasez de instrumentos dise&ntilde;ados y validados en Latinoam&eacute;rica (y ausencia de instrumentos en espa&ntilde;ol)<sup>69</sup> que dificulta la detecci&oacute;n temprana de este tipo de trastornos y la comprensi&oacute;n de la dimensi&oacute;n de la problem&aacute;tica y los factores espec&iacute;ficos involucrados entre los diferentes grupos poblacionales.</p>      <p align="center"><a name="t02"></a><img src="img/revistas/suis/v48n2/v48n2a03t2.jpg"></p>      <p align="justify">El uso de entrevistas cl&iacute;nicas, ha sido menos frecuente al requerir mayores recursos, pero resulta fundamental para confirmar el diagn&oacute;stico de una alteraci&oacute;n en el v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil. Dentro de las entrevistas especializadas m&aacute;s usadas se encuentran la Entrevista Birmingham de Salud Mental Materna &#91;BMMHI&#93;<sup>62</sup> o su sexta edici&oacute;n de reciente dise&ntilde;o ahora denominada Entrevista Stafford (Brockington, et al. 2014, <i>en prensa</i>) las cuales cuentan con una secci&oacute;n para evaluar la relaci&oacute;n temprana entre la madre y el beb&eacute; y criterios diagn&oacute;sticos para descartar o confirmar un trastorno vincular. Otras entrevistas para estos mismos fines son el Inventario Yale sobre pensamientos y acciones paternas &#91;YIPTA&#93;<sup>70</sup> y la entrevista semiestructurada de Evaluaci&oacute;n Contextual de la Experiencia Maternal &#91;CAME&#93;<sup>71</sup>.</p>      <p align="justify">La mayor&iacute;a de los estudios han utilizado s&oacute;lo autoreportes o entrevistas para evaluar dificultades vinculares. Sin embargo, esto conlleva el riesgo de una mayor probabilidad de simulaci&oacute;n en las respuestas maternas y de sesgo en los datos<sup>3</sup>. Por ello, se sugiere sumar ambas estrategias y si se cuenta con los recursos suficientes, incluir observaciones directas que cuentan con un mayor nivel de confiabilidad (p.e. Codificaci&oacute;n Interactivo del Comportamiento &#91;Coding Interactive Behavior-CIB&#93;<sup>72</sup>, Escala Bethlem de Interacci&oacute;n madre-infante &#91;Blethlem Mother-Infant Interaction Scale-BMIS&#93;<sup>73</sup>, Care-Index<sup>74</sup>). En caso de evaluaci&oacute;n por medio de entrevistas cl&iacute;nicas y de observaciones directas, se sugiere usar a dos evaluadores quienes independientemente realicen un dictamen sobre la presencia o ausencia de una alteraci&oacute;n del v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil y posteriormente se calcule el grado de fiabilidad inter-evaluador y se obtengan diagn&oacute;sticos consensuados<sup>61,75,76</sup>. Ã‰sta ha resultado ser una estrategia &uacute;til para eliminar el sesgo subjetivo de la evaluaci&oacute;n e incrementar el grado de confiabilidad de los resultados obtenidos.</p>      <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>CONCLUSIONES</b></font></p>      <p align="justify">Evidencia cient&iacute;fica ha confirmado la importancia y val&iacute;a de la inclusi&oacute;n de la salud mental materno-infantil, como parte de la atenci&oacute;n a la salud perinatal. Sin embargo, el conocimiento actual describe en su mayor&iacute;a la realidad de pa&iacute;ses desarrollados con sistemas de salud y realidades distintas a la latinoamericana. Los avances desiguales en salud mental perinatal entre los pa&iacute;ses muestran grandes desaf&iacute;os para Latinoam&eacute;rica, donde el acceso a los servicios de salud en particular de salud mental y el trabajo multidisciplinario presentan una gran disparidad vinculada a la gran desigualdad social existente en la regi&oacute;n. La prevalencia en la regi&oacute;n de importantes problemas como la pobreza, la desigualdad en acceso a los sistemas de salud, el embarazo en mujeres adolescentes y elevados &iacute;ndices de violencia e inseguridad social conforman un ambiente de riesgo que afecta en mayor medida a grupos vulnerables como las mujeres y los ni&ntilde;os en los pa&iacute;ses latinoamericanos. Estas condiciones sociales suponen un riesgo para las interacciones tempranas entre las madres y sus reci&eacute;n nacidos, con consecuencias adversas en el bienestar individual del infante a largo plazo y el del contexto familiar con efectos en la salud poblacional.</p>      <p align="justify">Algunos de los principales retos visibles en Latinoam&eacute;rica en cuanto a la salud mental materno-infantil y en particular en la vinculaci&oacute;n temprana madre-beb&eacute; son:</p>  <ul>     <li>Inclusi&oacute;n de la evaluaci&oacute;n y atenci&oacute;n a la salud mental materna como prioridad para la promoci&oacute;n de la salud materno-infantil en todos los niveles de los sistemas de salud.</li>    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br>     <li>Dise&ntilde;o y validaci&oacute;n de instrumentos y estrategias de evaluaci&oacute;n del v&iacute;nculo materno-infantil adecuados y pertinentes a las caracter&iacute;sticas de las poblaciones.</li>    <br>     <li>Identificaci&oacute;n de la prevalencia de alteraciones en la vinculaci&oacute;n materno-infantil y los factores de riesgo asociados en los diversos grupos sociales, en particular en los m&aacute;s vulnerables (p.e. madres adolescentes, con bajos niveles socioecon&oacute;micos y de escolaridad, con trastornos mentales, en &aacute;reas rurales y en grupos &iacute;ndigenas y marginales, expuestas a contextos de violencia intrafamiliar y comunitaria).</li>    <br>     <li>Formaci&oacute;n de equipos multidisciplinarios de profesionales de la salud en m&eacute;todos de detecci&oacute;n temprana de dificultades en la vinculaci&oacute;n materno-infantil y en intervenciones eficientes que disminuyan las consecuencias adversas asociadas.</li>    <br>     <li>Vinculaci&oacute;n permanente de la investigaci&oacute;n con la profesionalizaci&oacute;n de la pr&aacute;ctica cl&iacute;nica en el campo de salud mental perinatal.</li>    <br>     <li>Promoci&oacute;n de la salud materno-infantil mediante estrategias de salud multidisciplinarias en los diversos niveles de atenci&oacute;n sanitaria que disminuyan el efecto de los factores de riesgo espec&iacute;ficos de cada poblaci&oacute;n atendida.</li>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[</ul>      <p align="justify">Incluir esta tem&aacute;tica en la agenda de salud vinculada a la investigaci&oacute;n en los pa&iacute;ses latinoamericanos e impulsar los esfuerzos ya realizados puede ser una inversi&oacute;n estrat&eacute;gica para promover la salud mental de la regi&oacute;n. La generaci&oacute;n del conocimiento en este campo, permitir&aacute; identificar la dimensi&oacute;n de la problem&aacute;tica en los diversos grupos poblacionales, orientada hacia la toma de decisiones en prioridades de salud y la generaci&oacute;n de nuevas pol&iacute;ticas p&uacute;blicas de salud mental perinatal. El costo de detecciones y atenciones temprana y eficientes de las dificultades vinculares en las diadas madre-beb&eacute; es reducido en comparaci&oacute;n a los beneficios potenciales que estas iniciativas podr&aacute;n tener en la mejora de la salud mental materna y el desarrollo psicosocial infantil, aspectos fundamentales del bienestar psicosocial de cualquier regi&oacute;n.</p>  <hr>      <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>REFERENCIAS</b></font></p>      <!-- ref --><p align="justify">1. Spinner M. Maternal-infant bonding. Can Fam Physician. 1978; 24: 1151-1153.    &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=3944733&pid=S0121-0807201600020000300001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --></p>      <!-- ref --><p align="justify">2. Brockington I. Postpartum psychiatric disorders. 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