<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0121-5612</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Colombia Internacional]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[colomb.int.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0121-5612</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Departamento de Ciencia Política y Centro de Estudios Internacionales. Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de los Andes]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0121-56122021000300087</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.7440/colombiaint107.2021.04</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Corporate Networks and Business Influence in Panama, Costa Rica, and El Salvador]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Redes corporativas e influencia empresarial en Panamá, Costa Rica y El Salvador]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="pt"><![CDATA[Redes corporativas e influência empresarial no Panamá, Costa Rica e El Salvador]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cárdenas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Julián]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Robles-Rivera]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Francisco]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="Aff"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="Af1">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universitat de València  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>Spain</country>
</aff>
<aff id="Af2">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de Costa Rica  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
<country>Costa Rica</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2021</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2021</year>
</pub-date>
<numero>107</numero>
<fpage>87</fpage>
<lpage>112</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0121-56122021000300087&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0121-56122021000300087&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0121-56122021000300087&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[ABSTRACT.  Objective/Context:  This paper explores the relationship between corporate networks and business influence to figure out the conditions of state capture.  Methodology:  We analyze corporate networks through interlocking directorates in three Central American countries - Panama, Costa Rica, and El Salvador - using network analysis, and we pinpoint the relationship between the structure of the corporate network and two corporate political actions: contributions to presidential campaigns and revolving doors.  Conclusions:  Results show corporate networks were fragmented in the three Central American countries, except for a well-connected business cluster in Panama. The organization of business elites based on a single cohesive business cluster could facilitate coordination to finance political parties, which gives them more strength to demand government posts. On the other side, the absence of connections between business elites makes it difficult to reach agreements and weaken business influence. Findings suggest that networking among some (not all) business elites can be a source that precedes state capture, as it organizes access to the state through collective mobilization of resources and coordinated action planning.  Originality:  This paper is the first study on networks of interlocking directorates in Central American economies and combines original data on contributions to electoral campaigns and revolving doors. Therefore, it can be a benchmark for future studies on business power. In addition, this study introduces the analysis of interlocking directorates in the literature on state capture.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[RESUMEN.  Objetivo/contexto:  este artículo explora la relación entre las redes corporativas y la influencia empresarial para averiguar las condiciones en las que ocurre la captura del Estado.  Metodología:  analizamos las redes corporativas a través de interlocking directorates en tres países centroamericanos -Panamá, Costa Rica y El Salvador- utilizando análisis de redes; y estudiamos la relación entre la estructura de las redes corporativas y dos acciones políticas de las empresas: contribuciones a campañas presidenciales y puertas giratorias.  Conclusiones:  los resultados muestran que las redes corporativas estaban fragmentadas en los tres países centroamericanos, a excepción de un grupo empresarial bien conectado en Panamá. La organización de las élites empresariales basada en un solo clúster empresarial cohesionado podría facilitar la coordinación para financiar a los partidos políticos, lo que les daría más fuerza para exigir puestos gubernamentales. Por otro lado, la ausencia de conexiones entre las élites empresariales dificulta el logro de acuerdos y debilita la influencia empresarial. Los hallazgos sugieren que la creación de redes entre algunas (no todas) las élites empresariales puede ser una fuente que precede a la captura del Estado, ya que organiza el acceso a este a través de la movilización colectiva de recursos y la planificación de acciones coordinadas.  Originalidad:  este artículo es el primer estudio sobre redes de interlocking directorates en países de América Central y combina datos originales sobre contribuciones a campañas electorales y puertas giratorias. Por lo tanto, puede ser un punto de referencia para futuros estudios en del poder empresarial. Además, introduce el análisis de las redes de interlocking directorates en la literatura en torno a la captura del Estado.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="pt"><p><![CDATA[RESUMO.  Objetivo/contexto:  este artigo explora a relação entre redes corporativas e influência empresarial para descobrir as condições de captura do estado.  Metodologia:  analisamos redes corporativas por meio de interlocking directorates em três países da América Central - Panamá, Costa Rica e El Salvador - usando análise de rede; e, analisamos a relação entre a estrutura da rede corporativa e duas ações de influência empresarial: contribuições para campanhas presidenciais e portas giratórias.  Conclusões:  os resultados mostram que as redes corporativas foram fragmentadas nos três países da América Central, exceto um cluster de negócios bem conectado no Panamá. A organização das elites empresariais baseada em um único cluster coeso empresarial poderia facilitar a coordenação para financiar partidos políticos, o que lhes dá mais força para exigir cargos no governo. Por outro lado, a ausência de conexões entre as elites empresariais torna difícil chegar a acordos políticos enfraquece a influência empresarial. Os resultados sugerem que o trabalho em rede entre algumas (não todas) as elites empresariais pode ser uma fonte que antecede a captura do estado, pois organiza o acesso ao estado por meio da mobilização coletiva de recursos e do planejamento de ações coordenadas.  Originalidade:  este artigo é o primeiro estudo sobre redes de interlocking directorates em países da América Central e combina dados originais sobre contribuições para campanhas eleitorais e portas giratórias. Portanto, pode ser um ponto de referência para estudos futuros sobre poder empresarial. Além disso, este estudo introduz a análise de redes de interlocking directorates na literatura sobre captura de estado.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Business elites]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[interlocking directorates]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[corporate networks]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[business influence]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[revolving doors]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[campaign contributions]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[state capture]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[network analysis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[élites empresariales]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[interlocking directorates]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[redes corporativas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[influencia empresarial]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[puertas giratorias]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[contribuciones electorales]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[captura del Estado]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[análisis de redes]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[elites empresariais]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[interlocking directorates]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[redes corporativas]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[influência empresarial]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[portas giratórias]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[contribuições eleitorais]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[captura do estado]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="pt"><![CDATA[análise de rede]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><back>
<ref-list>
<ref id="B1">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>Acción Ciudadana (2019)</collab>
<source><![CDATA[&#8220;Datos abiertos del financiamiento de las campañas&#8221;]]></source>
<year></year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B2">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Aragón-Falomir]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Jaime]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cárdenas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Julián]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Análisis de redes empresariales y puertas giratorias en México: Cartografía de una clase dominante público-privada.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Temas y Debates]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>39</volume>
<page-range>81-103</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B3">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bellini]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Luis]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Los dos caminos para reclamar impuestos por revalúos | La Prensa Panamá.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[La Prensa]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B4">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bernhagen]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Patrick]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Political Power of Business: Structure and Information in Public Policy-Making]]></source>
<year>2007</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[New York, NY ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Routledge]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B5">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Borgatti]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[S. P.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Everett]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M. G.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Freeman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[L. C.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Ucinet for Windows: Software for Social Network Analysis]]></source>
<year>2002</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Harvard ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Analytic Technologies]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B6">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Brezis]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Elise S.]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cariolle]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Jöel]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Measuring Conflicts of Interest: A Revolving Door Indicator.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Working Paper Development Policies]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B7">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Bull]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Benedicte]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Castellacci]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Fulvio]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kasahara]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Yuri]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Business Groups and Transnational Capitalism in Central America: Economic and Political Strategies]]></source>
<year>2014</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[New York, NY ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Springer]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B8">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cárdenas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Julián]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Why Do Corporate Elites Form Cohesive Networks in Some Countries, and Do Not in Others? Cross-National Analysis of Corporate Elite Networks in Latin America.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[International Sociology]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>31</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>341-63</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B9">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cárdenas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Julián]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Exploring the Relationship between Business Elite Networks and Redistributive Social Policies in Latin American Countries.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Sustainability]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>12</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B10">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Cárdenas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Julián]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Robles-Rivera]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Francisco]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA["Business Elites in Panama: sources of power and state capture."]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[UNRISD Occasional Paper]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>12</volume>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B11">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Carpenter]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Daniel]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Moss]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[David A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Preventing Regulatory Capture: Special Interest Influence and How to Limit It]]></source>
<year>2013</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[New York ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B12">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Carroll]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[William K.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Corporate Power in a Globalizing World: A Study in Elite Social Organization]]></source>
<year>2004</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[New York ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B13">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Casas-Zamora]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Kevin]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Paying for Democracy: Political Finance and State Funding for Parties]]></source>
<year>2005</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Colchester ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[ECPR Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B14">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Castro Méndez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Mauricio]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA["Estudio sobre la Reforma Procesal Laboral de Costa Rica."]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Ginebra ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Organización Internacional del Trabajo]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B15">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<collab>CIA Factbook</collab>
<source><![CDATA[The World Factbook 2020]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Washington, DC ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Central Intelligence Agency]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B16">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dahl]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Robert A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;A Critique of the Ruling Elite Model.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The American Political Science Review]]></source>
<year>1958</year>
<volume>52</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>463-9</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B17">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dal Bó]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Ernesto]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Regulatory Capture: A Review.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Oxford Review of Economic Policy]]></source>
<year>2006</year>
<volume>22</volume>
<numero>2</numero>
<issue>2</issue>
<page-range>203-25</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B18">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Durand]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Francisco]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[La captura del Estado en América Latina: Reflexiones teóricas]]></source>
<year>2019</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Lima ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Fondo Editorial de la PUCP]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B19">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<collab>EFE</collab>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Publicista Confirma Que Odebrecht Financió Campaña de Candidato de Martinelli.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[La Estrella de Panamá]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B20">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Fairfield]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Tasha]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Private Wealth and Public Revenue in Latin America: Business Power and Tax Politics]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[New York, NY ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B21">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hellman]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Joel S]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Jones]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Geraint]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Kaufmann]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Daniel]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Seize the State, Seize the Day: State Capture and Influence in Transition Economies.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of Comparative Economics]]></source>
<year>2003</year>
<volume>31</volume>
<numero>4</numero>
<issue>4</issue>
<page-range>751-73</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B22">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Innes]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Abby]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;The Political Economy of State Capture in Central Europe.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Journal of Common Market Studies]]></source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>52</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>88-104</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B23">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Labrador]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Gabriel]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Los $22.5 Millones Sin Fiscalizar Que Pasaron Por Las Cuentas de Todos Los Partidos.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[El Faro]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B24">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Luna]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Matilde]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;El vínculo entre las élites empresariales mexicanas y los expertos: Expandiendo las fronteras del mercado.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Revista Española de Sociología]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
<volume>29</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<issue>3</issue>
<page-range>487-501</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B25">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mills]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[C. Wright]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Power Elite]]></source>
<year>1956</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[New York ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B26">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mizruchi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Mark S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Structure of Corporate Political Action: Interfirm Relations and Their Consequences]]></source>
<year>1992</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Cambridge ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Harvard University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B27">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Mizruchi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Mark S.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite]]></source>
<year>2013</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Cambridge ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Harvard University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B28">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Murray]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Joshua]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Interlock Globally, Act Domestically: Corporate Political Unity in the 21st Century.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[American Journal of Sociology]]></source>
<year>2017</year>
<volume>122</volume>
<numero>6</numero>
<issue>6</issue>
<page-range>1617-63</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B29">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Nyberg]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Daniel]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Corporations, Politics, and Democracy: Corporate Political Activities as Political Corruption.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Organization Theory]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>2</volume>
<page-range>1-24</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B30">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Omelyanchuk]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Oleksiy]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[&#8220;Explaining State Capture and State Capture Modes: The Cases of Russia and Ukraine.&#8221;]]></source>
<year>2001</year>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Department of International Relations and European Studies, Central European University, Budapest]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B31">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>Revista Summa. 2015</collab>
<source><![CDATA[&#8220;Quién Es Quién En La Región,&#8221;]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
<edition>253</edition>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B32">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Robles-Rivera]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Francisco]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Transformaciones y Concentración En Grupos de Poder Económico En Costa Rica (1980-2012).&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Revista Mexicana de Sociología]]></source>
<year>2014</year>
<volume>76</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>37-58</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B33">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Robles-Rivera]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Francisco]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Élites y Estrategias de Captura de Medios En América Central.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Revista Mexicana de Sociología]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
<volume>83</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B34">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Salvaj]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Erica]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Couyoumdjian]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Juan Pablo]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;&#8216;Interlocked&#8217; Business Groups and the State in Chile (1970-2010).&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[Business History]]></source>
<year>2016</year>
<volume>58</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>129-48</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B35">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sánchez-Ancochea]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Diego]]></given-names>
</name>
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Martí i Puig]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Salvador]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Handbook of Central American Governance]]></source>
<year>2014</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[New York ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Routledge]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B36">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Schneider]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Aaron]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[State-Building and Tax Regimes in Central America]]></source>
<year>2012</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Cambridge ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B37">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Schneider]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Ben Ross]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Business Politics and the State in Twentieth-Century Latin America]]></source>
<year>2004</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Cambridge ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Cambridge University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B38">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Scott]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[John]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Social Network Analysis]]></source>
<year>2012</year>
<edition>3rd edition</edition>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[London ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Sage]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B39">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Segovia]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Alexander]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Transformación estructural y reforma económica en El Salvador: el funcionamiento económico de los noventa y sus efectos sobre el crecimiento, la pobreza y la distribución del ingreso]]></source>
<year>2002</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[San Salvador ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[F&amp;G Editores]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B40">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Smith]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Mark A.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[American Business and Political Power: Public Opinion, Elections, and Democracy]]></source>
<year>2000</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[Chicago ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Chicago University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B41">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Stigler]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[George J.]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;The Theory of Economic Regulation.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[The Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science]]></source>
<year>1971</year>
<volume>2</volume>
<numero>1</numero>
<issue>1</issue>
<page-range>3-21</page-range></nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B42">
<nlm-citation citation-type="journal">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Torrijos Legazpi]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[José María]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<article-title xml:lang=""><![CDATA[&#8220;Motta: La Mano Que Mece La Cuna.&#8221;]]></article-title>
<source><![CDATA[La Estrella de Panamá]]></source>
<year>2015</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B43">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Useem]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[M]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[The Inner Circle]]></source>
<year>1984</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[New York ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Oxford University Press]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B44">
<nlm-citation citation-type="book">
<person-group person-group-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Vogel]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[David]]></given-names>
</name>
</person-group>
<source><![CDATA[Fluctuating Fortunes: The Political Power of Business in America]]></source>
<year>1989</year>
<publisher-loc><![CDATA[New York ]]></publisher-loc>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Basic Books]]></publisher-name>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B45">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>Wealth-X</collab>
<source><![CDATA[&#8220;The World Ultra Wealth Report 2013.&#8221;]]></source>
<year>2013</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B46">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>World Bank</collab>
<source><![CDATA[&#8220;World Bank Open Data.&#8221;]]></source>
<year>2020</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
<ref id="B47">
<nlm-citation citation-type="">
<collab>World Bank</collab>
<source><![CDATA[&#8220;Worldwide Governance Indicators.&#8221;]]></source>
<year>2021</year>
</nlm-citation>
</ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
</article>
