<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>1794-2470</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Nova]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Nova]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>1794-2470</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Universidad Colegio Mayor de Cundinamarca]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S1794-24702013000100009</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Producción de Astaxantina en Haematococcus pluvialis bajo diferentes condiciones de estrés]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[Astaxanthin Production in Haematococcus pluvialis under different stress conditions]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Camacho Kurmen]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Judith Elena]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[González]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Gloria]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Klotz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Bernadette]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A02"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Colegio Mayor de Cundinamarca Programa de Bacteriología y Laboratorio Clínico ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Bogotá ]]></addr-line>
<country>Colombia</country>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad de la Sabana  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Bogotá ]]></addr-line>
<country>Colombia</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2013</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2013</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>11</volume>
<numero>19</numero>
<fpage>94</fpage>
<lpage>104</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S1794-24702013000100009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S1794-24702013000100009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S1794-24702013000100009&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Las microalgas son fuente de un gran número de compuestos bioactivos de interés industrial, como los carotenoides que se utilizan como colorantes naturales en alimentación animal y humana, así como en la industria farmacéutica, cosmética y en la acuicultura. Además se han propuesto como agentes efectivos en la prevención de una variedad de enfermedades, debido a su capacidad antioxidante, inmunoregulaora, anti-inflamatoria y anti-cancerígena. El ketocarotenoide astaxantina es el más importante desde el punto de vista biotecnológico. Hoy la mayor cantidad de astaxantina es producida por síntesis química y es vendida a un precio de US $2500/kg. El alto precio y el incremento en la demanda para este compuesto, especialmente de origen natural, en las diferentes industrias, hace que sea de interés la producción astaxantina a partir de microalgas como el Haematococcus pluvialis, que acumula cantidades importantes (más del 4%/g de peso seco) y de mejor calidad que las obtenidas por otras fuentes como levaduras y plantas. La acumulación del pigmento en H. pluvialis ocurre durante la transformación de la microalga desde el estado vegetativo (fase verde) a aplanospora (fase roja) cuando cesa su crecimiento en la fase estacionaria. Los tipos de estrés que inducen a la acumulación de astaxantina son temperatura, intensidad lumínica, ciclos de luz/oscuridad, concentración de nutrientes, pH, especies reactivas de oxígeno, sales y presencia de inhibidores de procesos metabólicos a diferente nivel. Es importante resaltar que esta microalga es de difícil cultivo; así como en la obtención del pigmento en cantidades de interés, debido a su ciclo celular complejo. De igual forma, un mayor entendimiento de las bases moleculares de la relación -condiciones de estrés-inducción- acumulación de astaxantina en H. pluvialis, podría ser útil para aumentar la productividad de astaxantina.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[Microalgae are a source of a large number of bioactive compounds of industrial importance, such as carotenoids used as natural colorants in food and feed, as well as in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and aquaculture. They also have been studied as effective compounds for the prevention of different diseases due to their antioxidant, immunoregulatory, anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic properties. In biotechnology applications astaxanthin is the most important ketocarotenoide. Currently most astaxanthin is produced by chemical synthesis and sold at U.S. $ 2500/kg. The high price and increasing demand of this compound in different industries, especially of natural origin creates an interest in the astaxanthin production from microalgae as Haematococcus pluvialis that accumulate significant amounts (more than 4%/g dry weight) and better quality what is obtained from sources such as yeast and plants. The pigment accumulation in H. pluvialis occurs during the transformation of microalgae from the vegetative state (green phase) to aplanospora (red phase) when growth ends in the stationary phase. The types of stress that induce astaxanthin accumulation are temperature, light intensity, cycles of light / dark, nutrient concentration, pH, reactive oxygen species, salts and presence of metabolic processes inhibitors at different levels. Is important to take in account that this microalgae is hard to grow and obtain the pigment in amounts of interest could be complicated due to complex cell cycle. Similarly, a better understanding of the molecular basis of the relationship, stress-inducing conditions, astaxanthin accumulation in H. pluvialis, might be helpful for increasing productivity of astaxanthin.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[carotenoides]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Haematococcus pluvialis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[microalga]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[astaxantina]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[carotenoid]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Haematococcus pluvialis]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[microalgae]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[astaxantina]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[stress-conditions]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <font face="verdana" size="2">     <p align="center"><font size="4"><b>Producci&oacute;n de Astaxantina en  Haematococcus pluvialis bajo diferentes condiciones de estr&eacute;s</b></font></p>       <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>Astaxanthin Production in Haematococcus pluvialis under different stress  conditions</b></font></p>       <p align="center"> <i>Judith Elena Camacho Kurmen </i><sup>1</sup>,  <i>Gloria  Gonz&aacute;lez </i><sup>2</sup>,  <i>Bernadette  Klotz </i><sup>2</sup></p>       <p><sup>1</sup> Docente Investigadora del Programa de Bacteriolog&iacute;a y Laboratorio  Cl&iacute;nico de la Universidad Colegio Mayor de Cundinamarca, Bogot&aacute;-Colombia.  Doctorado en Biociencias, Universidad de la Sabana, Bogot&aacute;, Colombia<br />   <sup>2</sup> Doctorado en Biociencias, Universidad de la Sabana, Bogot&aacute;, Colombia</p>       <p> <b>Correspondencia:  </b><a href="mailto:jelenacamacho@hotmail.com">jelenacamacho@hotmail.com</a> </p>       <p><b>Recibido:  </b>15/02/2013  <b>Aceptado:  </b>23/05/2013</p>   <hr/>       <p> <b>RESUMEN </b></p>       <p>  Las microalgas son fuente de un gran n&uacute;mero de compuestos bioactivos de  inter&eacute;s industrial, como los carotenoides que se utilizan como colorantes  naturales en alimentaci&oacute;n animal y humana, as&iacute; como en la industria  farmac&eacute;utica, cosm&eacute;tica y en la acuicultura. Adem&aacute;s se han propuesto como  agentes efectivos en la prevenci&oacute;n de una variedad de enfermedades, debido a su  capacidad antioxidante, inmunoregulaora, anti-inflamatoria y anti-cancer&iacute;gena.  El ketocarotenoide astaxantina es el m&aacute;s importante desde el punto de vista  biotecnol&oacute;gico.</p>       <p>  Hoy la mayor cantidad de astaxantina es producida por s&iacute;ntesis qu&iacute;mica y  es vendida a un precio de US $2500/kg. El alto precio y el incremento en la  demanda para este compuesto, especialmente de origen natural, en las diferentes  industrias, hace que sea de inter&eacute;s la producci&oacute;n astaxantina a partir de  microalgas como el  <i>Haematococcus pluvialis,  </i>que acumula  cantidades importantes (m&aacute;s del 4%/g de peso seco) y de mejor calidad que las  obtenidas por otras fuentes como levaduras y plantas.</p>       ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>  La acumulaci&oacute;n del pigmento en  <i>H. pluvialis  </i>ocurre  durante la transformaci&oacute;n de la microalga desde el estado vegetativo (fase  verde) a aplanospora (fase roja) cuando cesa su crecimiento en la fase  estacionaria. Los tipos de estr&eacute;s que inducen a la acumulaci&oacute;n de astaxantina  son temperatura, intensidad lum&iacute;nica, ciclos de luz/oscuridad, concentraci&oacute;n de  nutrientes, pH, especies reactivas de ox&iacute;geno, sales y presencia de inhibidores  de procesos metab&oacute;licos a diferente nivel.</p>       <p>  Es importante resaltar que esta microalga es de dif&iacute;cil cultivo; as&iacute;  como en la obtenci&oacute;n del pigmento en cantidades de inter&eacute;s, debido a su ciclo  celular complejo. De igual forma, un mayor entendimiento de las bases  moleculares de la relaci&oacute;n -condiciones de estr&eacute;s-inducci&oacute;n- acumulaci&oacute;n de  astaxantina en  <i>H. pluvialis,  </i>podr&iacute;a ser &uacute;til para aumentar la  productividad de astaxantina.</p>       <p><b> <i>Palabras clave: </i> </b>   carotenoides,  <i>Haematococcus  pluvialis,  </i>microalga, astaxantina, condiciones de estr&eacute;s.</p>   <hr/>     <p> <b>ABSTRACT </b>     <p>  Microalgae are a source of a large number of  bioactive compounds of industrial importance, such as carotenoids used as  natural colorants in food and feed, as well as in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics  and aquaculture. They also have been studied as effective compounds for the  prevention of different diseases due to their antioxidant, immunoregulatory,  anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic properties.     <p>  In biotechnology applications astaxanthin is the  most important ketocarotenoide. Currently most astaxanthin is produced by  chemical synthesis and sold at U.S. $ 2500/kg. The high price and increasing  demand of this compound in different industries, especially of natural origin  creates an interest in the astaxanthin production from microalgae as  Haematococcus pluvialis that accumulate significant amounts (more than 4%/g dry  weight) and better quality what is obtained from sources such as yeast and  plants.     <p>  The pigment accumulation in  <i>H. pluvialis  </i>occurs  during the transformation of microalgae from the vegetative state (green phase)  to aplanospora (red phase) when growth ends in the stationary phase. The types  of stress that induce astaxanthin accumulation are temperature, light  intensity, cycles of light / dark, nutrient concentration, pH, reactive oxygen  species, salts and presence of metabolic processes inhibitors at different  levels.     <p>  Is important to take in account that this  microalgae is hard to grow and obtain the pigment in amounts of interest could  be complicated due to complex cell cycle. Similarly, a better understanding of  the molecular basis of the relationship, stress-inducing conditions,  astaxanthin accumulation in  <i>H. pluvialis,  </i>might be helpful for  increasing productivity of astaxanthin.     <p><b> <i>Key words: </i> </b>   carotenoid,  <i>Haematococcus pluvialis,  microalgae, astaxantina, stress-conditions. </i><br /> <hr/>        <p><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N </b></p>        ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>  Los carotenoides son un grupo de pigmentos encontrados en la naturaleza  en plantas, y a nivel microbiano. Tienen un rol funcional en el desarrollo,  fotos&iacute;ntesis y estabilidad de la membrana, dando protecci&oacute;n al da&ntilde;o fotodin&aacute;mico  (1-4). Se han caracterizado al menos 700 carotenoides, son precursores de  fitohormonas y proveen adaptaci&oacute;n ambiental (5,6).</p>        <p>  Los carotenoides ejercen una funci&oacute;n protectora por su alto poder  antioxidante y tambi&eacute;n son importantes ingredientes de la dieta humana. Algunos  estudios sugieren que previenen algunas enfermedades cr&oacute;nicas y ciertos  c&aacute;nceres (6).</p>        <p>  Por otra parte, se ha analizado la ruta biosint&eacute;tica de carotenoides,  conoci&eacute;ndose dos rutas (5). Adem&aacute;s se han identificado 25 genes carotenog&eacute;nicos,  que producen diferentes funciones catal&iacute;ticas en las s&iacute;ntesis de carotenos (7)  y algunos de estos genes han sido clonados y expresados funcionalmente en  <i>E.  coli.  </i>(4,8,9) Estos son componentes esenciales de todas las c&eacute;lulas  eucariotas fotosint&eacute;ticas (10).</p>        <p>  El alga unicelular  <i>H. pluvialis  </i>es una de las mejores  fuentes de carotenoides secundarios rojos como la astaxantina, <a href="#f1">Figura 1</a>, en  especial para producirla biotecnol&oacute;gicamente. La astaxantina tiene uso  farmac&eacute;utico, cosm&eacute;tico y como aditivo de pigmentaci&oacute;n en la acuacultura  (salm&oacute;n) (1,11-13) y para yemas de huevo (14,15).</p>        <p align="center"><a name="f1"></a><img src="img/revistas/nova/v11n19/v11n19a08f01.jpg"></p>     <p>  Recientemente ha llamado la atenci&oacute;n como un suplemento nutricional, siendo  inhibidor de la peroxidaci&oacute;n de l&iacute;pidos, reductor de la inflamaci&oacute;n g&aacute;strica.  Adicionalmente, disminuye el riesgo de arteriosclerosis y previene la  carcinog&eacute;nesis (14), adem&aacute;s tiene potencial neuroprotector e inmunomodulador  (11) y sirve como alimento nutrac&eacute;utico por su alto poder antioxidante  (8,12,17,18).</p>     <p>  La demanda mundial para I<sup>2</sup>-caroteno de origen natural est&aacute; alrededor del  15 a 20%, una similar demanda para astaxantina de origen natural est&aacute;  emergiendo en el mercado nutrac&eacute;utico que mueve billones de d&oacute;lares. Adem&aacute;s la  producci&oacute;n biotecnol&oacute;gica a partir de  <i>H. pluvialis,  </i>es  ventajosa sobre la s&iacute;ntesis qu&iacute;mica y la extracci&oacute;n a partir de crust&aacute;ceos  (19).</p>     <p><b> <i>Qu&iacute;mica de la astaxantina </i> </b> </p>     <p>  La mol&eacute;cula de astaxantina tiene dos carbonos asim&eacute;tricos localizados en  las posiciones 3 y 3&rsquo; sobre los dos anillos benc&eacute;nicos al final de la mol&eacute;cula.  Diferentes enantiomeros de la mol&eacute;cula son resultantes de la uni&oacute;n de los  grupos hidroxilo a los &aacute;tomos de carbono, que son centros de asimetr&iacute;a. <a href="#f2">Figura  2</a>.</p>      <p>   Cuando los grupos hidroxilo se unen sobre el plano de la mol&eacute;cula se  dice que est&aacute;n en la configuraci&oacute;n R y cuando los grupos hidroxilo se unen bajo  el plano de la mol&eacute;cula se dice que est&aacute;n en la configuraci&oacute;n S. As&iacute;, los tres  posibles enanti&oacute;meros son designados R,R&rsquo;; S,S&rsquo; y R,S&rsquo;(meso). El  <i>Haematococcus  </i>primeramente  contiene monoesteres de astaxantina (20).</p>      ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="center"><a name="f2"></a><img src="img/revistas/nova/v11n19/v11n19a08f02.jpg"></p>      <p>La composici&oacute;n de los esteres de astaxantina  <i>en Haematococcus  </i>es  similar a la de los crust&aacute;ceos, fuente de dieta natural de los salmones. Siendo  el contenido de astaxantina en quistes de <i>Haematococcus </i>; aproximadamente  de 70% monoesteres, 25% diesteres y 5% libre. El alga  <i>Haematococcus  </i>provee  la configuraci&oacute;n 3S,3&rsquo;S de astaxantina, mientras la levadura  <i>Phaffia  </i>contiene  3R, 3&rsquo;R astaxantina pura, y la astaxantina sint&eacute;tica es una mezcla de los tres  is&oacute;meros (20).</p>      <p><b> <i>Condiciones de estr&eacute;s ambiental en cultivos de H. pluvialis </i> </b> </p>      <p>  Fisiol&oacute;gicamente la acumulaci&oacute;n de astaxantina en  <i>H. pluvialis  </i>ocurre  en respuesta a varias condiciones de estr&eacute;s ambiental como; alta intensidad de  luz, limitaciones de nitr&oacute;geno, f&oacute;sforo y estr&eacute;s por sal (14,21,22).</p>       <p>    El cambio morfol&oacute;gico en  <i>H. pluvialis  </i>de c&eacute;lulas  vegetativas verdes, para incrementar el n&uacute;mero de las c&eacute;lulas, a c&eacute;lulas con  quistes rojos que acumulan astaxantina es inducido por algunos factores, tales  como; temperatura alta, deficiencia de nutrientes (nitrato, magnesio, sulfato y  fosfato), alta intensidad de luz, alta salinidad y estr&eacute;s oxidativo  (12,17,23,24). Sus quistes maduros son a menudo responsables del color rojo  sangu&iacute;neo visto en el fondo seco de rocas afuera de charcos y de ba&ntilde;os de aves.  Este color es causado por astaxantina la cual se cree protege los quistes  maduros del detrimento de los efectos de los rayos UV, cuando est&aacute;n expuestos a  los rayos solares directos (25).</p>      <p>  En el ciclo de vida del  <i>H. pluvialis  </i>se ha observado  que las c&eacute;lulas verdes vegetativas con dos flagelos crecen  autotr&oacute;ficamente en la luz y heterotr&oacute;ficamente en la oscuridad (26). El  <i>H.  pluvialis  </i>es una microalga que puede crecer bajo condiciones  fotoautotr&oacute;ficas, heterotr&oacute;ficas y mixotr&oacute;ficas (27).</p>      <p>  Otras de las condiciones de estr&eacute;s ensayadas son: estr&eacute;s de nutrientes,  alta intensidad de luz, alta salinidad (7,28), pH y nutrientes org&aacute;nicos como  acetato (9) &oacute; combinaci&oacute;n cloruro de sodio/acetato de sodio, aumentando el  contenido total de carotenoides y contenido total de astaxantina (29). En la  <a href="#t1">Tabla 1</a> se pueden observar en forma general las diferentes condiciones de  estr&eacute;s ensayadas en los estudios revisados (1-51), incluyendo el uso de  fotobioreactores, mezcl&aacute;ndolo con ciclos irregulares de luz/oscuridad (17).</p>       <p align="center"><a name="t1"></a><img src="img/revistas/nova/v11n19/v11n19a08t01.jpg"></p>     <p> <b> <i>Ruta de bios&iacute;ntesis de Astaxantina en H. pluvialis </i> </b> </p>     <p>  En la bios&iacute;ntesis de carotenoides el primer paso es la condensaci&oacute;n del  geranil-geranil difosfato (GGPP) a fitoeno, modificado por la enzima fitoeno  sintasa (PSY), como se observa en la <a href="#f3">Figura 3</a>.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p align="center"><a name "f3"></a><img src="img/revistas/nova/v11n19/v11n19a08f03.jpg"></p>     <p> Los siguientes pasos son llevados fuera de la membrana localizando  enzimas como; fitoeno desaturasa (PDS) y licopeno &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-cyclasa (LCY). Seg&uacute;n estudios realizados la  fitoeno desaturasa es regulada por los niveles del mRNA y se ha establecido que los carotenoides  secundarios se acumulan fuera del cloroplasto, siendo transportados del sitio de bios&iacute;ntesis  (cloroplasto) al sitio de acumulaci&oacute;n (ves&iacute;culas localizadas en el citoplasma)  (1,9).</p>     <p>  Las rutas metab&oacute;licas secundarias sirven para explorar nuevas estructuras  qu&iacute;micas a m&iacute;nimos costos, en especial a trav&eacute;s de la identificaci&oacute;n de enzimas  que pueden actuar sobre diversos sustratos (5). Todas las enzimas de la ruta  son reguladas por genes y son sintetizadas en el citoplasma de las c&eacute;lulas como  precursores polip&eacute;ptidicos (3).</p>     <p>  La ingenier&iacute;a gen&eacute;tica es una opci&oacute;n para mejorar la ruta biosint&eacute;tica  de los carotenoides para producir astaxantina (8) en  <i>H. pluvialis  </i>(9),  modificando el gen de la fitoeno desaturasa (PDS) (11) o usando los genes  carotenog&eacute;nicos en  <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae  </i>(19) como fitoeno  desaturasa (crtl) y la bifuncional fitoeno sintasa/licopeno ciclasa (crtYB)  (41).</p>     <p>  En la fitoeno desaturasa (PDS) se ha estudiado tambi&eacute;n la duplicaci&oacute;n de  genes a PDS1 y PDS2, (10), lo cual no ha sido reportado en  <i>H. pluvialis.  </i>La  bios&iacute;ntesis de astaxantina en  <i>Haematococcus  </i>sigue la ruta  general de carotenos hacia la formaci&oacute;n del &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-caroteno.</p>     <p>  En estudios realizados  <i>in vitro  </i>e  <i>in vivo  </i>utilizando  diferentes inhibidores en el an&aacute;lisis de la producci&oacute;n de astaxantina en  <i>H.  pluvialis  </i>han encontrado otras enzimas &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-caroteno ketolasa (BKT),  &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-caroteno oxigenasa (CRTO) y &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-caroteno hidroxilasa (CHY o CRTR-B), <a href="#f4">Figura 4</a>. El BKT convierte el &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-caroteno a cantaxantina v&iacute;a equinenona, siendo  regulado por el CHY resultando en la formaci&oacute;n de astaxantina. Los genes para  &Icirc;â€š-caroteno desaturasa (ZDS) y carotenoide isomerasa (CRTISO) no han sido  reportados en  <i>Haematococcus  </i>(9,29).</p>     <p>  Se han observado actividades biofuncionales para la actividad separada  de &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-caroteno hydroxylasa y ketolasa regulada por dos genes separados, uno de  los cuales ( <i>crtS </i>) se ha clonado en otros organismos (19). Adem&aacute;s se  sugiere que se puede involucrar otra enzima en el proceso de s&iacute;ntesis de  astaxantina, por ser este un carotenoide, como la plastido terminal oxidasa  (PTOX); la cual se ha expresado bajo condiciones de estr&eacute;s para mejorar la  producci&oacute;n de carotenoides (42). Aunque los pasos espec&iacute;ficos de bios&iacute;ntesis de  astaxantina son llevados afuera del citoplasma, las enzimas de la ruta  carotenoide parecen estar localizadas en los cloroplastos (9,29).</p>     <p align="center"><a name="f4"></a><img src="img/revistas/nova/v11n19/v11n19a08f04.jpg"></p>     <p>  A pesar de que algunos genes reguladores para enzimas de la ruta biosint&eacute;tica  de carotenoides han sido identificados en varias especies, incluyendo algas,  a&uacute;n no se conoce bien la regulaci&oacute;n de la carotenog&eacute;nesis  <i>in vivo  </i>(9).</p>     <p><b> <i>Correlaci&oacute;n condiciones de estr&eacute;s - expresi&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica en cultivos de H.  pluvialis durante la </i> </b>  <b> <i>producci&oacute;n de astaxantina </i> </b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>  La dilucidaci&oacute;n de las rutas sint&eacute;ticas de carotenoides y el enorme  progreso en la clonaci&oacute;n de genes; estableciendo los genes, las enzimas  implicadas y conociendo como es el proceso y su regulaci&oacute;n (1), han aportado  las herramientas necesarias para realizar ingenier&iacute;a gen&eacute;tica y as&iacute; incrementar  la s&iacute;ntesis de carotenoides mediante el aumento a la tolerancia a condiciones  de estr&eacute;s (5,14,15). La mayor&iacute;a de manipulaciones va dirigida a aumentar el  contenido de licopeno y &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-caroteno, aprovechando la sobreexpresi&oacute;n de la  fitoeno desaturasa (PDS) (1) y fitoeno sintasa (PSY) (14). Adem&aacute;s se evidencia  la existencia de una sobrerregulaci&oacute;n de un m&uacute;ltiple mecanismo de defensa  antioxidante, espacialmente y temporalmente, para proteger las c&eacute;lulas del  <i>H.  pluvialis  </i>en contra del estr&eacute;s oxidativo (24).</p>     <p>  La expresi&oacute;n de genes carotenog&eacute;nicos, fitoeno sintasa (PSY), fitoeno  desaturasa (PDS), licopeno ciclasa (LCY), &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-caroteno Ketolasa (BKT) y  &Icirc;<sup>2</sup>-caroteno hydroxilasa (CHY), se aumenta bajo las condiciones de estr&eacute;s de  nutrientes, alta intensidad de luz en combinaci&oacute;n con cloruro de sodio/ acetato  de sodio (29). El estr&eacute;s de nutrientes y la alta intensidad de luz inducen la  expresi&oacute;n de los genes biosint&eacute;ticos de astaxantina, BKT y CHY, transitoriamente.  El aumento de la expresi&oacute;n de estos genes se observ&oacute; con acetato de sodio y  cloruro de sodio/acetato de sodio, mientras la expresi&oacute;n fue demorada con  cloruro de sodio (29).</p>     <p>  Diferentes expresiones de genes carotenoides durante la carotenog&eacute;nesis  indican su probable regulaci&oacute;n en los diferentes estados de acumulaci&oacute;n del  carotenoide.  En un estudio realizado en el 2001, se report&oacute; un alto  nivel de expresi&oacute;n para genes PSY y CHY, cuando las c&eacute;lulas estuvieron  expuestas a alta intensidad de luz y cloruro de sodio (14,29). En la familia de  genes PSY se han identificado los genes PSY1,PSY2 y PSY3, en condiciones de  estr&eacute;s ambiental; como sequ&iacute;a y presencia de sal, estableciendo que el gen PSY3  es importante en el flujo de la regulaci&oacute;n de carotenoides en respuesta a  condiciones de estr&eacute;s (43,44) lo cual no ha sido reportado en  <i>H.  pluvialis. </i></p>     <p>  El primer estudio que presenta la regulaci&oacute;n de carotenog&eacute;nesis general  y espec&iacute;fica para astaxantina bajo la influencia de nutrientes y otras  condiciones de estr&eacute;s, se realiz&oacute; en el 2008, analizando el nivel de expresi&oacute;n  y de metabolismo usando inhibidores transcripcionales y transduccionales (29).</p>     <p>  En la <a href="#t2">Tabla 2</a> se presenta una relaci&oacute;n de algunos estudios que nos  permite correlacionar condiciones de estr&eacute;s- expresi&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica, teniendo en  cuenta las determinaciones realizadas y las instituciones involucradas (grupos  de investigaci&oacute;n).<br /> </p>     <p align="center"><a name="t2"></a><img src="img/revistas/nova/v11n19/v11n19a08t02.jpg"></p>     <p>En la <a href="#t3">Tabla 3</a> se presenta la relaci&oacute;n de las diferentes instituciones y  grupos de investigaci&oacute;n que se encuentran trabajando en esta tem&aacute;tica,  identificando los diferentes m&eacute;todos de an&aacute;lisis propuestos por cada una,  correlacion&aacute;ndola con la determinaci&oacute;n realizada, el pa&iacute;s y el a&ntilde;o de publicaci&oacute;n.</p>     <p align="center"><a name="t3"></a><img src="img/revistas/nova/v11n19/v11n19a08t03.jpg"></p>      <p> <b>CONCLUSIONES </b> </p>     <p>  Aunque existen un gran n&uacute;mero de estudios de la influencia de diferentes  condiciones de estr&eacute;s sobre la expresi&oacute;n de genes carotenog&eacute;nicos en  <i>H.  pluvialis </i>, se estableci&oacute; que estudios sobre la influencia de otros factores  de estr&eacute;s o de todos aplicados en forma simult&aacute;nea son muy limitados, as&iacute; como  estudios que relacionen estas condiciones con la expresi&oacute;n de genes  carotenog&eacute;nicos durante la producci&oacute;n de astaxantina.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Los estudios usando varios inhibidores indican que la carotenogenesis en  general y la inducci&oacute;n de carotenoides secundarios est&aacute; regulada a nivel  transcripcional y transduccional, y se constituye en un tema de inter&eacute;s a  investigar para entender los genes involucrados, las prote&iacute;nas    y la actividad enzim&aacute;tica durante la inducci&oacute;n de acumulaci&oacute;n de carotenoides  secundarios, en especial astaxantina.</p>     <p>  Respecto a los grupos que trabajan esta tem&aacute;tica, vemos que es un tema  de inter&eacute;s en varias instituciones alrededor del mundo en pa&iacute;ses como;  Alemania, Estados Unidos, Jap&oacute;n, India, Corea, China, Turqu&iacute;a, involucrando no  solo el estudio de la correlaci&oacute;n condiciones de estr&eacute;s, expresi&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica,  producci&oacute;n de astaxantina, sino tambi&eacute;n el uso de diferentes m&eacute;todos de  an&aacute;lisis y la ingenier&iacute;a gen&eacute;tica, ya sea en el mismo  <i>H. pluvialis  </i>u  otros microorganismos como  <i>E. coli  </i>o  <i>S. cerevisiae;  </i>siempre  en la b&uacute;squeda de conocer mejor la ruta biosint&eacute;tica, las prote&iacute;nas  involucradas, las enzimas y los genes expresados para mejorar la producci&oacute;n de  astaxantina.</p>  <hr>     <p><b>REFERENCIAS </b> </p>     <!-- ref --><p>  1. 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