<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>2011-7582</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista Colombiana de Cirugía]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[rev. colomb. cir.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>2011-7582</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Asociación Colombiana de Cirugía]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S2011-75822006000300003</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[Primer Consenso Colombiano en Sepsis]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[First Colombian Consensus on sepsis]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Restrepo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Marcos I]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Dueñas]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carmelo]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[González]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Marco]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Ortiz]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Guillermo]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Álvarez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Granados]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Marcela]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Acosta]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Arias]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Arturo]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Atehortúa]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Luis H]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Camargo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Rubén]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Carvajal]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Martín]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[de la Rosa]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Gisela]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Durán]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Julio]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Echeverri]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Juan L]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Gil]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Bladimir]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Hurtado]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Martínez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Ernesto]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Rebolledo]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Saavedra]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Carlos]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Sandoval]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Julio]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Velandia]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Julio]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Vélez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[José A]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Vélez]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Juan D]]></given-names>
</name>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Grupo operativo consenso colombiano en sepsis  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[Bogotá ]]></addr-line>
<country>Colombia</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2006</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2006</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>21</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<fpage>155</fpage>
<lpage>179</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S2011-75822006000300003&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S2011-75822006000300003&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S2011-75822006000300003&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri></article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <font size="2" face="Verdana">      <p>       <center>     <font size="4"><b>Primer Consenso Colombiano en Sepsis </b></font>   </center> </p>     <p>       <center>     <font size="3"><b>First Colombian Consensus on sepsis</b></font>    </center> </p>     <p>    <center>Marcos I. Restrepo, MD(1), Carmelo Due&ntilde;as, MD(1), Marco Gonz&aacute;lez,    MD(1), Guillermo Ortiz, MD(1), Carlos &Aacute;lvarez, MD(1), Marcela Granados, MD,    Carlos Acosta, MD, Arturo Arias, MD, Luis H. Atehort&uacute;a, MD, Rub&eacute;n    Camargo, MD, Mart&iacute;n Carvajal, MD, Gisela de la Rosa, MD, Julio Dur&aacute;n,    MD, Juan L. Echeverri, MD, Bladimir Gil, MD, Carlos Hurtado, MD, Ernesto Mart&iacute;nez,    MD, Carlos Rebolledo, MD, Carlos Saavedra, MD, Julio Sandoval, MD, Julio Velandia,    MD, Jos&eacute; A. V&eacute;lez, MD, Juan D. V&eacute;lez, MD, y representantes    de los comit&eacute;s de la Asociaci&oacute;n Colombiana de Medicina Intensiva    y Cuidado Intensivo (AMCI) y la Asociaci&oacute;n Colombiana de Infectolog&iacute;a    (ACIN).</center></p>     <p>(1) Grupo operativo consenso colombiano en sepsis.</p>     <p>Correspondencia: Carmelo Due&ntilde;as, MD.Correo electr&oacute;nico: <a href="mailto:crdc2001@hotmail.com">crdc2001@hotmail.com</a>.    Bogot&aacute;, Colombia.</p>     <p>Fecha de recibo: Julio 10 de 2006. Fecha de aprobaci&oacute;n: Julio 31 de    2006. </p> <hr size=1>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>Palabras clave: sepsis, conferencias para el desarrollo de consenso, infecci&oacute;n.</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Abreviaturas empleadas a lo largo del texto</b></font></p>     <p>ACCP American College of Chest Physicians    <br>   ACIN Asociaci&oacute;n Colombiana de Infectolog&iacute;a    <br>   AMCI Asociaci&oacute;n Colombiana de Medicina     <br>   Cr&iacute;tica y Cuidado Intensivo    <br>   CAP cat&eacute;ter de arteria pulmonar    <br>   CCS Consenso Colombiano en Sepsis    <br>   CMV citomegalovirus    <br>   DAA drotrecog&iacute;n alfa activado    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br>   ECC estudios cl&iacute;nicos controlados    <br>   EPO eritropoyetina recombinante    <br>   FRA falla renal aguda    <br>   GRE gl&oacute;bulos rojos empacados    <br>   HBPM heparina de bajo peso molecular    <br>   HNF heparina no fraccionada     <br>   HVVC hemofiltraci&oacute;n veno-venosa continua    <br>   IAM infarto agudo de miocardio    <br>   IAR insuficiencia adrenal relativa    <br>   IgIV inmunoglobulinas intravenosas    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br>   IRA insuficiencia respiratoria aguda    <br>   IRC insuficiencia renal cr&oacute;nica    <br>   LCR l&iacute;quido cefalorraqu&iacute;deo    <br>   NAC neumon&iacute;a adquirida en la comunidad    <br>   PAM presi&oacute;n arterial media    <br>   PCR prote&iacute;na C reactiva    <br>   PEEP presi&oacute;n positiva al final de la espiraci&oacute;n    <br>   PIRO predisposition, infection, response and organ dysfunction    <br>   PVC presi&oacute;n venosa central    <br>   RM resonancia magn&eacute;tica    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br>   SCCM Society of Critical Care Medicine    <br>   SDRA s&iacute;ndrome de dificultad respiratoria aguda    <br>   SFOM escala de falla org&aacute;nica m&uacute;ltiple    <br>   SIRS s&iacute;ndrome de respuesta inflamatoria sist&eacute;mica    <br>   SvO2 saturaci&oacute;n venosa central de O2    <br>   TC tomograf&iacute;a computarizada    <br>   TEV tromboembolismo venoso    <br>   TRR terapias de remplazo renal    <br>   TRRC terapias de remplazo renal continuo    <br>   UCI unidad de cuidado intensivo    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br>   US ultrasonido    <br>   VIH virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana    <br>   VNI ventilaci&oacute;n no invasiva</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Introducci&oacute;n</b></font></p>     <p>La sepsis, sepsis severa y el choque s&eacute;ptico tienen una incidencia alta    y conllevan a una alta mortalidad, morbilidad y costos. Es por esto que la AMCI    y la ACIN decidieron realizar un consenso de diagn&oacute;stico y tratamiento    de sepsis con los siguientes tres objetivos fundamentales:</p>     <p>- Actualizar las recomendaciones de diagn&oacute;stico y manejo de sepsis (2004-2006).    <br>   - Aplicar las recomendaciones para el diagn&oacute;stico y manejo de pacientes    con sepsis de acuerdo el sistema de salud de Colombia.    <br>   - Promover la implementaci&oacute;n de las recomendaciones en la pr&aacute;ctica    cl&iacute;nica y la investigaci&oacute;n a nivel local y nacional en sepsis.</p>     <p>Este consenso es de alta prioridad, y por lo tanto, requiere una evaluaci&oacute;n    que siga la metodolog&iacute;a de la &quot;medicina basada en evidencia&quot;    para dirigir as&iacute; la pr&aacute;ctica cl&iacute;nica en los pacientes con    sepsis. La AMCI y la ACIN comisionaron un panel de expertos, con la tarea de    producir un consenso basado en la evidencia que tuviese relevancia cl&iacute;nica.    El consenso est&aacute; dirigido a una audiencia amplia, ubicada en diferentes    campos: medicina general, cuidado intensivo, infectolog&iacute;a, neumolog&iacute;a,    m&eacute;dicos de urgencias, anestesiolog&iacute;a, medicina interna, cirug&iacute;a,    enfermer&iacute;a, terapia respiratoria, fisioterapia, oncolog&iacute;a, medicina    de transplantes y dem&aacute;s personal de salud involucrado en el cuidado de    pacientes con sepsis. </p>     <p>Los t&oacute;picos seleccionados para el consenso incluyen siete grupos grandes:    (1) terapia de soporte; (2) diagn&oacute;stico de sepsis y control de la infecci&oacute;n;    (3) medidas terap&eacute;uticas espec&iacute;ficas; (4) medidas generales y    preventivas; (5) pacientes inmunocomprometidos y poblaciones especiales con    sepsis; (6) protocolos en sepsis.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>La definici&oacute;n adoptada por el Consenso Colombiano de Sepsis es la propuesta    por American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP) y Society of Critical Care Medicine    (SCCM) en 1992 (4)Specialty, despu&eacute;s de su conferencia de consenso en    1991. La definici&oacute;n de sepsis es la presencia del s&iacute;ndrome de    respuesta inflamatoria sist&eacute;mica (SIRS) asociada a infecci&oacute;n;    sepsis severa es cuando adicionalmente se asocia con disfunci&oacute;n org&aacute;nica,    hipoperfusi&oacute;n, o hipotensi&oacute;n; y choque s&eacute;ptico cuando la    sepsis se asocia con hipotensi&oacute;n arterial a pesar de la reposici&oacute;n    adecuada de fluidos (tabla 1). Sin embargo, evidenciaron las deficiencias de    las definiciones actuales y sugirieron adicionar una lista de s&iacute;ntomas    y signos de sepsis que pueden reflejen mejor la respuesta cl&iacute;nica a la    infecci&oacute;n (tabla 2).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Graduaci&oacute;n de las recomendaciones</b></font></p>     <p>Las recomendaciones fueron graduadas y catalogadas utilizando la escala recomendada    por la ACCP en febrero de este a&ntilde;o. </p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Consenso de sepsis</b></font></p>     <p>El manejo efectivo de sepsis severa y choque s&eacute;ptico requiere reanimaci&oacute;n,    terapia antimicrobiana, drenaje del foco de infecci&oacute;n, monitoreo, medidas    espec&iacute;ficas, medidas de soporte. </p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Manejo de l&iacute;quidos</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n de las metas hemodin&aacute;micas en la resucitaci&oacute;n    inicial</b></p>     <p>- Las metas de reanimaci&oacute;n deben ser logradas en las primeras 6 horas    y mantenidas durante de las primeras 24 horas (Nivel 1A):    <br>   - Presi&oacute;n venosa central (PVC): 8-12 mmHg    <br>   - Presi&oacute;n arterial media (PAM) &gt;65 mmHg    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br>   - Gasto urinario &gt; 0.5 cc/kg/hora    <br>   - Saturaci&oacute;n venosa central de O2 (SvO2) &gt;70%</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de l&iacute;quidos en la reanimaci&oacute;n    inicial</b></p>     <p>- El uso de l&iacute;quidos intravenosos est&aacute; recomendado como terapia    inicial en pacientes en los que se demuestra compromiso de la perfusi&oacute;n    tisular (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre la administraci&oacute;n de l&iacute;quidos en    la reanimaci&oacute;n inicial</b></p>     <p>- El uso de bolos r&aacute;pidos repetidos de l&iacute;quidos intravenosos    est&aacute; recomendado en pacientes con compromiso de la perfusi&oacute;n tisular.    Para ajustar el volumen a administrar debe evaluarse la presi&oacute;n arterial,    la perfusi&oacute;n tisular y el desarrollo de edema pulmonar. (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de cristaloides y coloides incluyendo    la alb&uacute;mina</b></p>     <p>- No hay evidencia que demuestre el beneficio del uso de cristaloides o coloides    como soporte preferencial. Sin embargo, el grupo consenso sugiere el uso de    cristaloides debido a su disponibilidad, costo y bajos efectos adversos (Nivel    1A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de bicarbonato</b></p>     <p>- No se recomienda el uso de bicarbonato para corregir el pH en situaciones    de lacto-acidosis (Nivel 1B).    ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<br>   - Se debe considerar la administraci&oacute;n de bicarbonato en pacientes que    permanezcan con pH &lt; 7.1, despu&eacute;s de haber corregido las variables    ventilatorias y en quienes persista la inestabilidad hemodin&aacute;mica (Nivel    1B). </p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre la monitor&iacute;a con cat&eacute;ter de arteria    pulmonar (CAP)</b></p>     <p>- El cat&eacute;ter de arteria pulmonar es una herramienta diagn&oacute;stica    y de monitor&iacute;a del paciente cr&iacute;tico, por lo tanto, su utilidad    y/o riesgo no deber&aacute; evaluarse bas&aacute;ndose en los resultados o desenlaces    finales de los pacientes s&eacute;pticos (Nivel 1C). </p>     <p>- Se sugiere el uso de monitorizaci&oacute;n con cat&eacute;ter de la arteria    pulmonar ante la duda diagn&oacute;stica (choque hiperdin&aacute;mico o hipodin&aacute;mico)    y/o no respuesta a la reanimaci&oacute;n, en caso de no disponer de otro m&eacute;todo    para su evaluaci&oacute;n (como eco cardiograf&iacute;a) y en aquellos pacientes    s&eacute;pticos con cardiopat&iacute;a o con s&iacute;ndrome de dificultad respiratoria    aguda (SDRA) (Nivel 2C).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Vasopresores</b></font> </p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n del uso de vasopresores</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda iniciar vasopresores cuando, a pesar de un adecuado remplazo    de volumen (PVC/ 8 a 12 mmHg si no est&aacute; en ventilaci&oacute;n mec&aacute;nica    o PVC/ 12 a 15 mmHg si est&aacute; en ventilador), no se consigue mantener la    PAM &gt; 65 mmHg (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el manejo de vasopresores</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda el uso de soporte adren&eacute;rgico para mejorar la hipotensi&oacute;n    en pacientes con choque s&eacute;ptico (Nivel 1C).    <br>   - Se recomienda el uso de vasopresores en pacientes que, despu&eacute;s de un    adecuado manejo volum&eacute;trico, no hayan alcanzado las metas de reanimaci&oacute;n    (Nivel 1C).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de norepinefrina o dopamina como primera    elecci&oacute;n</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda el uso de norepinefrina o dopamina como primera l&iacute;nea    en la hipotensi&oacute;n en choque s&eacute;ptico (Nivel 1B).    <br>   - Se sugiere el uso de norepinefrina como un vasopresor potente para revertir    la hipotensi&oacute;n en choque s&eacute;ptico, pero los estudios son limitados    (Nivel 2B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el uso de dopamina a dosis bajas</b></p>     <p>- La infusi&oacute;n de dopamina a dosis bajas como protector renal (&lt;5    &frac14;g/kg/min), no altera el curso de la falla renal aguda, por lo tanto,    no est&aacute; justificado su uso (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Inotr&oacute;picos</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n acerca del agente inotr&oacute;pico de elecci&oacute;n</b></p>     <p>- El soporte inotr&oacute;pico con dobutamina, puede ser requerido por el paciente    con choque s&eacute;ptico, especialmente cuando contin&uacute;a con gasto card&iacute;aco    bajo, a pesar de una adecuada reanimaci&oacute;n con fluidos, o cuando hay depresi&oacute;n    mioc&aacute;rdica s&eacute;ptica severa o disfunci&oacute;n mioc&aacute;rdica    preexistente. Si es necesario usarlo, podr&iacute;a combinarse con terapia vasopresora,    incluso en presencia de presi&oacute;n arterial baja (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de valores supranormales del aporte de    ox&iacute;geno</b></p>     <p>- No hay estudios que sustenten los valores supranormales en los pacientes    s&eacute;pticos, por lo tanto, esta estrategia de reanimaci&oacute;n no se puede    recomendar (Nivel 1A). </p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font size="3"><b>Ventilaci&oacute;n mec&aacute;nica</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el uso de ventilaci&oacute;n no-invasiva</b></p>     <p>- La VNI empleada en pacientes con sepsis e IRA, es &uacute;til al reducir    la intubaci&oacute;n endotraqueal y la mortalidad a corto plazo en pacientes    que no requieran intubaci&oacute;n endotraqueal inmediata dependiendo del tipo    y evoluci&oacute;n del desorden subyacente (Nivel 2B). Sin embargo, la VNI no    debe demorar la intubaci&oacute;n temprana cuando est&eacute; claramente indicada    (Nivel 2B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el uso de ventilaci&oacute;n en mortalidad</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda el uso de ventilaci&oacute;n mec&aacute;nica para disminuir    la mortalidad en pacientes s&eacute;pticos que se presentan con falla respiratoria    aguda (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n del uso de vol&uacute;menes bajos</b></p>     <p>- La estrategia ventilatoria de bajos vol&uacute;menes corrientes (con volumen    corriente bajo: 6 ml/kg) que limita la presi&oacute;n de la v&iacute;a a&eacute;rea    (presi&oacute;n meseta &lt;30 cm H2O) se recomienda en el manejo del paciente    con falla respiratoria asociada a sepsis (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n del uso de protocolos de retiro de la ventilaci&oacute;n    mec&aacute;nica</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda el uso de protocolos de descontinuaci&oacute;n para limitar    el tiempo de ventilaci&oacute;n mec&aacute;nica (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Diagn&oacute;stico de la infecci&oacute;n en sepsis</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Recomendaciones sobre estudios de laboratorio en pacientes con sepsis</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda realizar estudios diagn&oacute;sticos de imaginolog&iacute;a    y obtenci&oacute;n de muestras de sitios probables de la infecci&oacute;n de    manera r&aacute;pida, con el fin de determinar la fuente de la infecci&oacute;n    y el agente causal (Nivel 1C). </p>     <p>- En caso de que el paciente est&eacute; muy inestable y no se le puedan realizar    procedimientos invasivos o no pueda ser transportado fuera de la UCI, puede    recurrirse a estudios tales como el ultrasonido (US) (Nivel 2C).</p>     <p>- No se recomienda el uso rutinario de marcadores biol&oacute;gicos (PCR, procalcitonina,    TREM) para diagn&oacute;stico o seguimiento de sepsis, sepsis severa o choque    s&eacute;ptico (Nivel 1B). Sin embargo, estos m&eacute;todos pueden tener utilidad    en un futuro cercano.</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el uso de estudios microbiol&oacute;gicos en sepsis</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda obtener cultivos de sangre y de otras secreciones corporales,    orina, LCR, heridas o secreciones respiratorias. Lo m&aacute;s recomendado es    tomar muestras de colecciones intraabdominales por m&eacute;todos percut&aacute;neos.    &Eacute;stas deben ser obtenidas antes de iniciar los antibi&oacute;ticos y    de acuerdo con la situaci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica del paciente (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p>- Se recomienda obtener dos (m&aacute;ximo tres) juegos de hemocultivos apropiados    antes de iniciar la terapia antimicrobiana emp&iacute;rica. Uno de &eacute;stos    debe ser percut&aacute;neo y otro a trav&eacute;s de cada v&iacute;a de acceso    vascular, a menos que esta v&iacute;a haya sido insertada recientemente (&lt;    48 horas). </p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Terapia antimicrobiana</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones de cu&aacute;ndo iniciar terapia antimicrobiana</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda iniciar la terapia antimicrobiana lo m&aacute;s pronto posible,    preferiblemente una vez obtenidas las muestras para los cultivos respectivos.    Sin embargo, la obtenci&oacute;n apropiada de m&eacute;todos diagn&oacute;sticos    no debe ser un obst&aacute;culo para iniciar la terapia antibi&oacute;tica (Nivel    1A).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el tipo de terapia antimicrobiana</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda iniciar terapia emp&iacute;rica temprana de amplio espectro,    que incluya uno o m&aacute;s medicamentos con actividad contra los pat&oacute;genos    bacterianos m&aacute;s probables de acuerdo con el contexto cl&iacute;nico del    paciente, y que tengan buena penetraci&oacute;n a los presuntos focos de la    sepsis (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p>- La elecci&oacute;n de los medicamentos antimicrobianos debe ser guiada por    los patrones de susceptibilidad de los microorganismos en la comunidad y en    cada hospital (Nivel 1B). </p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones de c&oacute;mo modificar la terapia antimicrobiana</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda evaluar el r&eacute;gimen antimicrobiano despu&eacute;s de    48 a 72 horas, seg&uacute;n los datos cl&iacute;nicos, microbiol&oacute;gicos    y de susceptibilidad obtenidos, para enfocar la terapia antimicrobiana hacia    un espectro m&aacute;s reducido (Nivel 1B). Con esto se busca disminuir el desarrollo    de resistencia, reducir toxicidad y evitar costos innecesarios. </p>     <p>- Si se determina que el s&iacute;ndrome cl&iacute;nico es debido a causas    no infecciosas, la terapia antibi&oacute;tica se debe descontinuar para as&iacute;    minimizar el desarrollo de pat&oacute;genos resistentes y sobreinfecci&oacute;n    con otros g&eacute;rmenes (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n acerca de la duraci&oacute;n de la terapia antimicrobiana</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda utilizar terapia antimicrobiana por lo menos durante 7 a 14    d&iacute;as, con variaciones en algunas situaciones espec&iacute;ficas (Nivel    1C).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de monoterapia y terapia combinada</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda el uso de terapia combinada emp&iacute;rica, pero una vez identificado    el pat&oacute;geno se debe suspender antibi&oacute;ticos que no adicionen alg&uacute;n    cubrimiento antimicrobiano. Terapia antimicrobiana combinada est&aacute; recomendada    en pacientes inmunocompetentes con sospecha o evidencia de sepsis (con bacteremia    o neumon&iacute;a) por P. aeruginosa (Nivel 1B).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso emp&iacute;rico de antif&uacute;ngicos    o antivirales</b></p>     <p>- El uso de terapia emp&iacute;rica antif&uacute;ngica o antiviral no est&aacute;    recomendada en los pacientes con sepsis. Sin embargo, terapia emp&iacute;rica    antif&uacute;ngica puede estar justificada en un grupo selecto de pacientes    s&eacute;pticos con alto riesgo de candidiasis invasiva (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p><b><font size="3">Control del foco de infecci&oacute;n</font></b></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n de sobre evaluaci&oacute;n del foco infeccioso </b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda utilizar, en lo posible, m&eacute;todos de imaginolog&iacute;a,    tales como TC, US y RM, que permitan establecer o confirmar el foco causante    de la sepsis. &Eacute;stos tambi&eacute;n ayudan en la toma de decisi&oacute;n    sobre el mejor abordaje terap&eacute;utico (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el control o erradicaci&oacute;n del foco infeccioso</b></p>     <p>- Recomendamos utilizar intervenciones dirigidas a controlar el foco infeccioso    seg&uacute;n el sitio de origen de la sepsis (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones acerca del tiempo en control del foco</b></p>     <p>- Una vez ha sido identificado un foco de infecci&oacute;n como la causa de    sepsis, y &eacute;ste es susceptible de ser controlado, se recomienda su control    lo m&aacute;s r&aacute;pidamente posible. El foco infeccioso debe ser adecuadamente    manejado con medidas de control de la fuente de infecci&oacute;n, despu&eacute;s    de la resucitaci&oacute;n inicial. Este es el caso de los abscesos intraabdominales,    perforaci&oacute;n de v&iacute;scera hueca, colangitis o isquemia mesent&eacute;rica.    Si las v&iacute;as de acceso vascular son la fuente presuntiva de la sepsis,    &eacute;stas deben ser removidas r&aacute;pidamente despu&eacute;s de establecer    otro acceso vascular (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Medidas espec&iacute;ficas</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Control de la glucemia</b></p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el control de la glucemia</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda controlar la hiperglicemia en pacientes con sepsis, con infusi&oacute;n    continua de insulina (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p>- Cuando se inicie infusi&oacute;n de insulina se debe asegurar un aporte de    glucosa IV continuo, o nutrici&oacute;n enteral o parenteral total, para disminuir    el riesgo de hipoglicemia (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el nivel de glicemia recomendado</b></p>     <p>- El nivel de glicemia recomendado debe ser menor de 150 mg/dL, valores superiores    obligan a emplear insulina intravenosa, evitando episodios de hipoglicemia (Nivel    1B).</p>     <p><b><font size="3">Esteroides en sepsis</font></b></p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre la utilidad e interpretaci&oacute;n de las pruebas    de funci&oacute;n adrenal para guiar el manejo con corticosteroides</b></p>     <p>- Si no se cuenta con pruebas de funci&oacute;n adrenal, puede utilizarse la    respuesta hemodin&aacute;mica del paciente a los corticosteroides como una forma    para guiar el tratamiento (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p>- Cuando se cuenta con pruebas de funci&oacute;n adrenal, la medici&oacute;n    del nivel de cortisol basal de 25 &frac14;g/dL define el diagn&oacute;stico    de insuficiencia adrenal en pacientes con choque s&eacute;ptico (Nivel 2B).  </p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>- El uso de una prueba r&aacute;pida de estimulaci&oacute;n con 250 &frac14;g    de corticotropina (ACTH) IV con la medici&oacute;n del &quot;max para clasificar    los pacientes como respondedores y no respondedores, tambi&eacute;n permite    guiar la terapia con corticosteroides. Sin embargo, esta prueba se considera    opcional, y la espera de sus resultados no debe retrasar la administraci&oacute;n    de corticosteroides cuando est&eacute;n indicados (Nivel 2B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el uso de corticosteroides </b></p>     <p>- Todo paciente con choque s&eacute;ptico que, a pesar de una adecuada reposici&oacute;n    de l&iacute;quidos, contin&uacute;e dependiendo de tratamiento vasopresor debe    ser estudiado para insuficiencia adrenal relativa. La terapia con corticosteroides    debe ser iniciada tan pronto como esta disfunci&oacute;n adrenal sea sospechada    (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p>- En pacientes con choque s&eacute;ptico que, a pesar de una adecuada reposici&oacute;n    de l&iacute;quidos, permanecen dependientes de terapia vasopresora, se recomiendan    dosis bajas de corticosteroides, hidrocortisona 200-300 mg/d&iacute;a en tres    o cuatro dosis divididas o en infusi&oacute;n continua (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p>- El tiempo de tratamiento debe ser de 5 a 7 d&iacute;as o mientras el paciente    permanezca con vasopresores (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p>- No se recomienda el uso de corticosteroides a dosis altas (30 mg/kg) por    un per&iacute;odo corto (24 a 48 horas) porque pueden aumentar la morbi-mortalidad    (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el corticosteroide ideal y la adici&oacute;n de un    mineralocorticoide</b></p>     <p>- La hidrocortisona debe ser el corticosteroide de elecci&oacute;n en pacientes    con choque s&eacute;ptico (Nivel 1A). La adici&oacute;n de un mineralocorticoide    tipo fludrocortisona se considera opcional (Nivel 2A).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Prote&iacute;na C activada en sepsis</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el uso y riesgos del drotrecogin alfa</b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>- Se recomienda el uso de drotrecogin alfa activado o prote&iacute;na C activada    en pacientes con sepsis severa (dos o m&aacute;s &oacute;rganos comprometidos)    y con APACHE II &gt; 25 en los que no existan contraindicaciones para su uso    (Nivel 1A). </p>     <p>- No se recomienda el uso de DAA en pacientes con sepsis severa (con un &oacute;rgano    disfuncional) y un APACHE II &lt; 25 (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Inmunoglobulinas en sepsis</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de inmunoglobulina intravenosa</b></p>     <p>- No se recomienda el uso de inmunoglobulinas policlonales en el tratamiento    de sepsis severa o choque s&eacute;ptico (Nivel 2C).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre una infecci&oacute;n espec&iacute;fica que se    beneficie del uso de inmunoglobulina intravenosa</b></p>     <p>- Se sugiere usar inmunoglobulina enriquecida en el tratamiento de la sepsis    de origen abdominal (Nivel 2B). </p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Terapia de remplazo renal en sepsis</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de TRR</b></p>     <p>- En pacientes s&eacute;pticos, se recomienda la TRR en presencia de sobrecarga    de volumen, hipercalemia, acidosis metab&oacute;lica y signos y s&iacute;ntomas    de uremia (Nivel 1C).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n para el uso de otras terapias de remplazo renal</b></p>     <p>- No se recomienda el uso de TRR para otros eventos diferentes a la FRA (Nivel    2A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de los varios m&eacute;todos de TRR</b></p>     <p>- No hay diferencias entre los diferentes m&eacute;todos de TRR en pacientes    s&eacute;pticos (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Uso de profilaxis antiulcerosa en el paciente s&eacute;ptico</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n del uso de la terapia antiulcerosa</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda el uso de profilaxis antiulcerosa en todo paciente con sepsis    severa y choque s&eacute;ptico (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n del medicamento ideal para la terapia antiulcerosa</b></p>     <p>- Para la profilaxis antiulcerosa se recomienda el uso de bloqueadores H2 (ranitidina    o famotidina) (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Transfusi&oacute;n y uso de hemoderivados</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el manejo transfusional</b></p>     <p>- En pacientes con sepsis, y en ausencia de enfermedad coronaria significativa    o sangrado activo, se recomienda transfundir gl&oacute;bulos rojos s&oacute;lo    cuando la hemoglobina sea &lt; 7 g/dL (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p>- En pacientes con sepsis severa y choque s&eacute;ptico, en las primeras 6    horas de manejo, se recomienda transfundir para llevar la Hb a &gt;10g/dL si    la SvO2&lt;70% y se ha corregido la hipovolemia y la hipotensi&oacute;n (Nivel    1A).</p>     <p>- Se recomienda la administraci&oacute;n de plasma fresco congelado (10-15    ml/kg) en los pacientes s&eacute;pticos que cursan con alteraci&oacute;n demostrada    de los factores de coagulaci&oacute;n, demostrada mediante anormalidades de    los tiempos de coagulaci&oacute;n y que presentan sangrado activo o est&aacute;n    siendo preparados para procedimientos quir&uacute;rgicos o invasivos (Nivel    1C).</p>     <p>- En pacientes s&eacute;pticos se recomienda la transfusi&oacute;n de plaquetas    cuando: (1) las plaquetas son &lt; 5.000/mm3; (2) est&aacute;n entre 5.000 y    50.000/mm3 y el paciente est&aacute; sangrando o tiene riesgo inminente de sangrado    (ej.: presencia de petequias, en el examen cl&iacute;nico); (3) plaquetas &gt;50.000/mm3    como preparaci&oacute;n para procedimiento quir&uacute;rgico o invasivo (Nivel    1C).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n del uso de eritropoyetina (EPO)</b></p>     <p>- Con base en la literatura disponible y relevante el uso profil&aacute;ctico    o terap&eacute;utico de EPO en los pacientes s&eacute;pticos no est&aacute;    recomendado como terapia de primera l&iacute;nea; se requiere mayor investigaci&oacute;n    en este campo (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Sedaci&oacute;n y analgesia en pacientes s&eacute;pticos</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de sedaci&oacute;n y analgesia</b></p>     <p>- No hay evidencia en la literatura para recomendar el uso de un agente sedante    espec&iacute;fico sobre los dem&aacute;s, ya que hasta el momento ninguno ha    logrado influir en el pron&oacute;stico de pacientes con sepsis que requieran    sedaci&oacute;n (Nivel 2B). </p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n de la sedante o analg&eacute;sico de elecci&oacute;n</b></p>     <p>- No existe evidencia en la literatura para usar un agente analg&eacute;sico    opioide espec&iacute;fico en pacientes con sepsis (Nivel 2C). </p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n del uso de protocolos para el manejo de sedaci&oacute;n    y analgesia</b></p>     <p>- El uso de protocolos para la titulaci&oacute;n de agentes sedantes y analg&eacute;sicos    orientados hacia la consecuci&oacute;n de metas cl&iacute;nicas, as&iacute;    como la interrupci&oacute;n diaria de estos medicamentos, disminuye el tiempo    de ventilaci&oacute;n mec&aacute;nica, la estancia en la UCI y en el hospital    en pacientes con sepsis en ventilaci&oacute;n mec&aacute;nica (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el monitoreo de la sedaci&oacute;n y analgesia</b></p>     <p>- Se recomienda establecer metas para alcanzar una &oacute;ptima sedaci&oacute;n    y analgesia, utilizando escalas previamente validadas en pacientes con sepsis    que se encuentran en ventilaci&oacute;n mec&aacute;nica (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n acerca del uso de miorrelajantes</b></p>     <p>- En los pacientes con sepsis, el uso de agentes relajantes musculares se deber&aacute;    evitar hasta donde sea posible. No existe evidencia en la literatura para usar    los relajantes con una indicaci&oacute;n espec&iacute;fica (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p><b><font size="3">Profilaxis de tromboembolismo venoso en sepsis</font></b></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre el uso de profilaxis del tromboembolismo venoso</b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>- Recomendamos utilizar profilaxis de TEV en todos los s&eacute;pticos, porque    la frecuencia de TEV en UCI es alta sin profilaxis, y los riesgos derivados    de la profilaxis son m&iacute;nimos (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n de una medicaci&oacute;n ideal para prevenir tromboembolismo</b></p>     <p>- La evidencia existente hasta el momento no permite hacer diferencias en claros    beneficios cl&iacute;nicos entre heparina no fraccionada y heparina de bajo    peso molecular (Nivel 1B).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n de profilaxis de tromboembolismo con m&eacute;todos    no farmacol&oacute;gicos</b></p>     <p>- En pacientes con alto riesgo de sangrado, se recomienda el uso de m&eacute;todos    mec&aacute;nicos hasta que el riesgo de sangrado disminuya; en ese momento se    debe considerar el uso de profilaxis farmacol&oacute;gica (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p>- En pacientes con muy alto riesgo de TEV o con varios factores de riesgo podr&iacute;a    considerarse la combinaci&oacute;n de profilaxis farmacol&oacute;gica y profilaxis    mec&aacute;nica con compresi&oacute;n neum&aacute;tica intermitente (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Soporte nutricional en el paciente s&eacute;ptico</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre la administraci&oacute;n del soporte nutricional</b></p>     <p>- El soporte nutricional debe administrarse cuando el paciente no est&eacute;    en estado de choque y cuando lo tolere, pero no existe evidencia que demuestre    que el soporte nutricional mejore la sobrevida en pacientes s&eacute;pticos    (Nivel 2C).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre la ruta preferida de administraci&oacute;n del soporte    nutricional</b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>- En pacientes con sepsis severa y choque s&eacute;ptico adecuadamente reanimados,    con tracto gastrointestinal funcional, se recomienda el uso de nutrici&oacute;n    enteral (Nivel 1C). </p>     <p>- En pacientes con sepsis severa y choque s&eacute;ptico no se recomienda el    uso de inmunonutrici&oacute;n suplementada con arginina (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Limitaci&oacute;n del soporte vital</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n de cu&aacute;ndo limitar el soporte terap&eacute;utico</b></p>     <p>- Sugerimos al grupo de salud a cargo del paciente discutir y comunicar con    frecuencia al paciente o sus responsables legales la severidad de la enfermedad,    las opciones terap&eacute;uticas y la posible futilidad de los tratamientos    (Nivel 2C).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n de qui&eacute;n decide limitar el soporte terap&eacute;utico</b></p>     <p>- Sugerimos involucrar al paciente o a las personas legalmente responsables    de los pacientes para que, junto con el personal de la salud tratante, tomen    la decisi&oacute;n de limitar el soporte terap&eacute;utico (Nivel 2C).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Sepsis en poblaciones especiales: inmunocomprometidos, VIH/sida,    c&aacute;ncer y postransplantados </b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n del cubrimiento emp&iacute;rico con antibi&oacute;ticos    de amplio espectro</b></p>     <p>- El paciente inmunocomprometido difiere en t&eacute;rminos del posible pat&oacute;geno    que puede causar sepsis severa o choque s&eacute;ptico, incluyendo bacterias    inusuales y hongos que pueden tener susceptibilidades &uacute;nicas a antibi&oacute;ticos,    y que requieren tratamientos muy espec&iacute;ficos. Sin embargo, se recomienda    el uso de antimicrobianos de amplio espectro mientras se obtienen los resultados    de cultivos (Nivel 1C).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b>Recomendaciones sobre la terapia antif&uacute;ngica</b></p>     <p>- Como tratamiento emp&iacute;rico en fiebre y neutropenia: de acuerdo con    el estado cl&iacute;nico y posibles contraindicaciones, recomendamos usar anfotericina    B, fluconazol, caspofungina (Nivel 1A). </p>     <p>- En aspergilosis invasiva se recomienda el uso de voriconazole (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p>- En candidiasis diseminada aguda recomendamos usar anfotericina B, fluconazol,    caspofungina (Nivel 1A).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n sobre la terapia emp&iacute;rica antiviral</b></p>     <p>- No se recomienda la terapia emp&iacute;rica antiviral en pacientes inmunocomprometidos    (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones sobre el uso de factor estimulante de colonias de granulocitos    y el factor estimulante de colonias de granulocitos y macr&oacute;fagos</b></p>     <p>- En pacientes neutrop&eacute;nicos febriles podr&iacute;an utilizarse los    factores estimulantes de colonias (Nivel 2C). Sin neutropenia no puede recomendarse    el uso de factores estimulantes de colonias (Nivel 1C).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Protocolos para el manejo de sepsis</b></font></p>     <p><b>Recomendaci&oacute;n acerca del uso de protocolos en la pr&aacute;ctica    cl&iacute;nica</b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>- Recomendamos usar protocolos basados en estudios originales y posterior validaci&oacute;n    e implementaci&oacute;n en la pr&aacute;ctica cl&iacute;nica. La aplicaci&oacute;n    de un protocolo general para el manejo de la sepsis es sugerido, a pesar de    la falta de evidencia.</p>     <p><b>Recomendaciones de diseminaci&oacute;n y estrategias de implementaci&oacute;n</b></p>     <p>- Para mejorar la aplicaci&oacute;n de las gu&iacute;as para el tratamiento    adecuado de la sepsis, sugerimos utilizar recursos dedicados a desarrollar material    educativo y mensajes computarizados con recordatorios. </p>     <p>- Sugerimos incluir un n&uacute;mero limitado de recursos para reuniones educacionales,    auditor&iacute;a y retroalimentaci&oacute;n, o visitas educacionales. Estas    recomendaciones son generalmente factibles, aceptables y potencialmente pueden    ser en bajo costo. Tambi&eacute;n sugerimos utilizar materiales dirigidos a    la distribuci&oacute;n de material educativo.</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Agradecimientos</b></font></p>     <p>Estamos profundamente agradecidos con nuestros revisores externos: Dr. Antonio    Anzueto, Dr. Marc Chalaby, Dr. Alejandro Jim&eacute;nez, Dr. Kelly Echevarr&iacute;a,    Dr. Edgar Celis, Dr. Marco A. Peraf&aacute;n y la licenciada Mar&iacute;a E.    Gonz&aacute;lez. Queremos tambi&eacute;n expresar nuestra gratitud a nuestro    corrector de estilo y editor m&eacute;dico el Dr. Diego Roselli y a nuestra    bibliotec&oacute;loga Lic. Paola Laverde.</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Nota: </b></font></p>     <p>El presente es un resumen ejecutivo del Primer Consenso Colombiano de Sepsis.    El documento en extenso, con las bibliograf&iacute;as referenciadas, ha sido    publicado recientemente por la AMCI y la ACIN.</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>Referencias</b></font></p>     <p>1. Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, Clermont G, Carcillo J, Pinsky MR.    Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome,    and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 2001; 29:1303-10.</p>     ]]></body>
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<body><![CDATA[<p>32. Sandham JD, Hull RD, Brant RF, Knox L, Pineo GF, Doig CJ, et al. A randomized,    controlled trial of the use of pulmonary-artery catheters in high-risk surgical    patients. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 5-14.</p>     <p>33. Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, Dellinger RP, Fein AM, Knaus WA, et al. Definitions    for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies    in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. American College of    Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine. Chest 1992; 101: 1644-1655.</p>     <p>34. Annane D, Bellissant E, Cavaillon JM. Septic shock. Lancet 2005; 365: 63-78.</p>     <p>35. Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, Bollaert PE, Francois B, Korach JM,    et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone    on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 2002; 288: 862-871.</p>     <p>36. Vincent JL, Gerlach H. Fluid resuscitation in severe sepsis and septic    shock: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med 2004; 32 (11 Suppl): S451-454.</p>     <p>37. Rhodes A, Bennett ED. Early goal-directed therapy: an evidence-based review.    Crit Care Med 2004; 32 (11 Suppl): S448-450.</p>     <p>38. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, Gerlach H, Calandra T, Cohen J, et al.    Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic    shock. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 536-555.</p>     <p>39. Beale RJ, Hollenberg SM, Vincent JL, Parrillo JE. Vasopressor and inotropic    support in septic shock: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med 2004; 32 (11    Suppl): S455-465.</p>     <p>40. Martin C, Viviand X, Leone M, Thirion X. Effect of norepinephrine on the    outcome of septic shock. Crit Care Med 2000; 28: 2758-2765.</p>     <p>41. Morimatsu H, Singh K, Uchino S, Bellomo R, Hart G. Early and exclusive    use of norepinephrine in septic shock. Resuscitation 2004; 62: 249-254.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>42. Sakr Y, Reinhart K, Vincent JL, Sprung CL, Moreno R, Ranieri VM, et al.    Does dopamine administration in shock influence outcome? Results of the Sepsis    Occurrence in Acutely Ill Patients (SOAP) Study. Crit Care Med 2006; 34: 589-597.</p>     <p>43. Friedrich JO, Adhikari N, Herridge MS, Beyene J. Meta-analysis: low-dose    dopamine increases urine output but does not prevent renal dysfunction or death.    Ann Intern Med 2005; 142: 510-524.</p>     <p>44. Dellinger RP. Cardiovascular management of septic shock. Crit Care Med    2003; 31: 946-955.</p>     <p>45. LeDoux D, Astiz ME, Carpati CM, Rackow EC. Effects of perfusion pressure    on tissue perfusion in septic shock. Crit Care Med 2000; 28: 2729-2732.</p>     <p>46. Parrillo JE. Pathogenetic mechanisms of septic shock. N Engl J Med 1993;    328: 1471-147.</p>     <p>47. Cunnion RE, Schaer GL, Parker MM, Natanson C, Parrillo JE. The coronary    circulation in human septic shock. Circulation 1986; 73: 637-644.</p>     <p>48. Shoemaker WC, Appel PL, Kram HB, Waxman K, Lee TS. Prospective trial of    supranormal values of survivors as therapeutic goals in high-risk surgical patients.    Chest 1988; 94: 1176-1186.</p>     <p>49. Boyd O, Grounds RM, Bennett ED. A randomized clinical trial of the effect    of deliberate perioperative increase of oxygen delivery on mortality in high-risk    surgical patients. JAMA 1993; 270: 2699-2707.</p>     <p>50. Gattinoni L, Brazzi L, Pelosi P, Latini R, Tognoni G, Pesenti A, et al.    A trial of goal-oriented hemodynamic therapy in critically ill patients. SvO2    Collaborative Group. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1025-1032.</p>     <p>51. Hayes MA, Timmins AC, Yau EH, Palazzo M, Hinds CJ, Watson D. Elevation    of systemic oxygen delivery in the treatment of critically ill patients. N Engl    J Med 1994; 330: 1717-1722.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>52. Yu M, Burchell S, Hasaniya NW, Takanishi DM, Myers SA, Takiguchi SA. Relationship    of mortality to increasing oxygen delivery in patients &gt; or = 50 years of    age: a prospective, randomized trial. Crit Care Med 1998; 26: 1011-1019.</p>     <p>53. Kern JW, Shoemaker WC. Meta-analysis of hemodynamic optimization in high-risk    patients. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: 1686-1692.</p>     <p>54. Tobin MJ. Advances in mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 1986-1996.</p>     <p>55. Girou E, Brun-Buisson C, Taille S, Lemaire F, Brochard L. Secular trends    in nosocomial infections and mortality associated with noninvasive ventilation    in patients with exacerbation of COPD and pulmonary edema. JAMA 2003; 290: 2985-2991.</p>     <p>56. Lightowler JV, Wedzicha JA, Elliott MW, Ram FS. Non-invasive positive pressure    ventilation to treat respiratory failure resulting from exacerbations of chronic    obstructive pulmonary disease: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis.    BMJ 2003; 326: 185.</p>     <p>57. Keenan SP, Sinuff T, Cook DJ, Hill NS. Does noninvasive positive pressure    ventilation improve outcome in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure? A systematic    review. Crit Care Med 2004; 32: 2516-2523.</p>     <p>58. Wysocki M, Tric L, Wolff MA, Millet H, Herman B. Noninvasive pressure support    ventilation in patients with acute respiratory failure. A randomized comparison    with conventional therapy. Chest 1995; 107: 761-768.</p>     <p>59. Martin TJ, Hovis JD, Costantino JP, Bierman MI, Donahoe MP, Rogers RM,    et al. A randomized, prospective evaluation of noninvasive ventilation for acute    respiratory failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 161 (3 Pt 1): 807-813.</p>     <p>60. Ferrer M, Esquinas A, Le&oacute;n M, Gonz&aacute;lez G, Alarc&oacute;n    A, Torres A. Noninvasive ventilation in severe hypoxemic respiratory failure:    a randomized clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168: 1438-1444.</p>     <p>61. Confalonieri M, Potena A, Carbone G, Porta RD, Tolley EA, Umberto Meduri    G. Acute respiratory failure in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia.    A prospective randomized evaluation of noninvasive ventilation. Am J Respir    Crit Care Med 1999; 160 (5 Pt 1): 1585-1591.</p>     ]]></body>
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