<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>0034-7450</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista Colombiana de Psiquiatría]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[rev.colomb.psiquiatr.]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>0034-7450</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Asociacion Colombiana de Psiquiatria.]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S0034-74502001000300002</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[ENFERMEDAD DE ALZHEIMER PRESENTE TERAPÉUTICO Y RETOS FUTUROS (PRIMERA PARTE)]]></article-title>
<article-title xml:lang="en"><![CDATA[ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE CURRENT THERAPY AND FUTURE CHALLENGES (FIRST PART)]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[CACABELOS]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[RAMÓN]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Instituto para Enfermedades del Sistema Nervioso Central Centro de Investigación Biomédica EuroEspes (CIBE) ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[La Coruña ]]></addr-line>
<country>España</country>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2001</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2001</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>30</volume>
<numero>3</numero>
<fpage>215</fpage>
<lpage>238</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0034-74502001000300002&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S0034-74502001000300002&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S0034-74502001000300002&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[En los últimos 20 años la Enfermedad de Alzheimer pasó de ser el paradigma del envejecimiento normal -aunque prematuro y acelerado-, del cerebro, para convertirse en una enfermedad auténtica, nosológicamente bien definida y con una clara raíz genética. La enfermedad afecta hoy a más de 20 millones de personas, tiene enormes consecuencias sobre la economía de los países y constituye uno de los temas de investigación más activos en el área de salud. Este artículo revisa el conocimiento actual sobre el tema. En esta primera parte se analizan su epidemiología, patogenia y genética; se enumeran los temas prioritarios de investigación; se revisa su relación con el concepto de muerte celular programada (apoptosis) y se enumeran los elementos indispensables para el diagnóstico.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[In the last 20 years, Alzheimer's disease is no longer the paradigme of normal brain ageing -even though premature and fast. It became an authentic disease, nosologically well defined, and with a dear genetic root. Nowadays, this disease affects more than 20 million people, with enormous economical consequences in different countries and constitutes one of the more active topics of research in the field of health. This paper is a review of the current knowledge on the subject. The first part studies its epidemiology, pathogenia and genetics; priority topics of investigation are here listed; links betweenn Alzheimer and programmed cell death (apoptosis) are discussed, and essential diagnostic elements are presented.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Enfermedad de Alzhaimer]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Demencia]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Genética]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[Terapéutica]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Alzheimer's Disease]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Dementia]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Genetics]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[Therapeutics]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <font face="verdana" size="2">      <p align="right"><b>ART&Iacute;CULO ESPECIAL</b></p>     <p align="center"><font size="4"><b>ENFERMEDAD DE ALZHEIMER PRESENTE TERAP&Eacute;UTICO    Y RETOS FUTUROS (PRIMERA PARTE)</b></font></p>     <p align="center"><font size="3"><b>ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE CURRENT THERAPY AND FUTURE    CHALLENGES (FIRST PART)</b></font></p>     <p><b>RAM&Oacute;N CACABELOS *</b></p>     <p>* Centro de Investigaci&oacute;n Biom&eacute;dica EuroEspes (CIBE). Instituto    para Enfermedades del Sistema Nervioso Central. 15166-Bergondo, La Coru&ntilde;a,    Espa&ntilde;a. E-mail: <a href="mailto:cacabelos@euroespes.com">cacabelos@euroespes.com</a></p> <hr size="1">     <p>En los &uacute;ltimos 20 a&ntilde;os la Enfermedad de Alzheimer pas&oacute;    de ser el paradigma del envejecimiento normal -aunque prematuro y acelerado-,    del cerebro, para convertirse en una enfermedad aut&eacute;ntica, nosol&oacute;gicamente    bien definida y con una clara ra&iacute;z gen&eacute;tica. La enfermedad afecta    hoy a m&aacute;s de 20 millones de personas, tiene enormes consecuencias sobre    la econom&iacute;a de los pa&iacute;ses y constituye uno de los temas de investigaci&oacute;n    m&aacute;s activos en el &aacute;rea de salud.</p>     <p> Este art&iacute;culo revisa el conocimiento actual sobre el tema. En esta    primera parte se analizan su epidemiolog&iacute;a, patogenia y gen&eacute;tica;    se enumeran los temas prioritarios de investigaci&oacute;n; se revisa su relaci&oacute;n    con el concepto de muerte celular programada (apoptosis) y se enumeran los elementos    indispensables para el diagn&oacute;stico.</p>     <p> <b>Palabras Clave</b>:Enfermedad de Alzhaimer; Demencia; Gen&eacute;tica;    Terap&eacute;utica. </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p> <hr size="1">     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>In the last 20 years, Alzheimer's disease is no longer the paradigme of normal    brain ageing -even though premature and fast. It became an authentic disease,    nosologically well defined, and with a dear genetic root. Nowadays, this disease    affects more than 20 million people, with enormous economical consequences in    different countries and constitutes one of the more active topics of research    in the field of health.</p>     <p> This paper is a review of the current knowledge on the subject. The first    part studies its epidemiology, pathogenia and genetics; priority topics of investigation    are here listed; links betweenn Alzheimer and programmed cell death (apoptosis)    are discussed, and essential diagnostic elements are presented.</p>     <p> <b>Key Words</b>: Alzheimer's Disease; Dementia; Genetics; Therapeutics. </p>     <p>&nbsp;</p> <hr size="1">     <p><font size="3"><b>INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p> Las verdades absolutas de hoy son verdades relativas de ma&ntilde;ana; y el    objetivo fundamental de toda investigaci &oacute;n cient&iacute;fica es la b&uacute;squeda    de nuevas verdades que asienten sobre el conocimiento previo. Cuanto m&aacute;s    dif&iacute;cil es el concepto a definir mayor es el apetito especulativo al    que nos fuerza la ignorancia. Y cuando el objeto, definido sobre fundamentos    insuficientes, se populariza, cuesta m&aacute;s trabajo desmantelar los viejos    conceptos que redefinir conceptos nuevos mejor fundamentados. La enfermedad    de Alzheimer (EA) es uno de esos paradigmas que en los &uacute;ltimos 20 a&ntilde;os    pas&oacute; de ser una an&eacute;cdota en los libros de medicina a tema prioritario    de la salud, con m&aacute;s de 10.000 publicaciones anuales en todos los idiomas.    La entidad pas&oacute; de ser en poco tiempo la proyecci&oacute;n acelerada    y prematura del envejecimiento cerebral normal para convertirse en una enfermedad    genuina, nosol&oacute;gicamente definida, con una profunda raigambre gen&eacute;tica,    que afecta a m&aacute;s de 20 millones de personas y pone en riesgo a m&aacute;s    de 70 millones de ciudadanos en los pr&oacute;ximos 20 a&ntilde;os (Cacabelos,    1999).</p>     <p> El extraordinario crecimiento de la poblaci&oacute;n mayor de 65 a&ntilde;os    en los pa&iacute;ses desarrollados, el aumento de la esperanza de vida en los    pa&iacute;ses con econom&iacute;as no consolidadas, el creciente aumento de    las tasas de discapacidad en la poblaci&oacute;n anciana, el aumento de los    costos sociosanitarios, la explosi&oacute;n del conocimiento cient&iacute;-    fico, la irrupci&oacute;n en el marco p&uacute;blico de los avances en el mapeo    del genoma humano, la difusi&oacute;n del conocimiento a trav&eacute;s de los    medios de comunicaci &oacute;n de masas y la preocupaci &oacute;n personal de    las familias en las cuales se manifiesta el fen&oacute;meno del deterioro cognitivo    asociado a demencia, han hecho que la conciencia p&uacute;blica y la atenci&oacute;n    general se preocupen por entender las dram&aacute;ticas consecuencias que tiene    la demencia sobre la salud de las personas y la econom &iacute;a de los Estados.</p>     <p> Junto al agobio personal de las familias afectadas, la inundaci&oacute;n informativa    sin filtros de rigor y las controversias cient&iacute;ficas propias del conflicto    de intereses que acompa&ntilde;a a toda carrera de conocimiento con connotaciones    industriales y pol&iacute;ticas, muchos conceptos que rodean a la EA han sufrido    importantes vaivenes en los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os, creando confusi&oacute;n    y desviando la atenci&oacute;n de temas prioritarios asociados a la atenci&oacute;n    integral que debe establecerse ante un problema de la magnitud de las demencias.    Afortunadamente, estamos entrando en una &eacute;poca de asentamiento del conocimiento,    lo cual nos debe servir para establecer conceptos duraderos, estrategias s&oacute;lidas    y pol&iacute;- ticas cre&iacute;bles. Todo ello debe basarse en la documentaci&oacute;n    cient&iacute;fica de que hemos hecho acopio en los &uacute;ltimos 30 a&ntilde;os.    En ella debemos diferenciar con sentido com&uacute;n las virtudes y los errores    del pasado, de modo que podamos planificar con eficacia estrategias globales    orientadas a garantizar protecci &oacute;n y bienestar a las generaciones futuras.</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>CONCEPTOS Y &Aacute;REAS DE INVESTIGACI&Oacute;N</b></font></p>     <p> El primer concepto a definir es el de demencia. La demencia debe entenderse    como una entidad nosol&oacute;gica caracterizada por la desintegraci&oacute;n    global de las funciones superiores del sistema nervioso central (SNC). En ella    convergen alteraciones cognitivas (memoria, inteligencia general, pensamiento    abstracto y operativo, lenguaje, praxis, gnosis), conductuales (psicomotricidad    consciente, emociones, conducta relacional, sue&ntilde;o, alimentaci &oacute;n,    personalidad, car&aacute;cter) y funcionales (psicomotricidad inconsciente,    marcha, capacidad de desenvolvimiento en la vida diaria). De ello resulta que    la demencia es un s&iacute;ndrome caracterizado por disfunciones progresivas    y com&uacute;nmente irreversibles, en tres &aacute;reas:</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p> <b>Cognitiva</b>: amnesia, apraxia, agnosia, afasia.</p>     <p> <b>Conductual</b>: ansiedad, agitaci&oacute;n, trastorno depresivo, trastorno    psic&oacute;- tico, trastorno de sue&ntilde;o, trastorno de conducta general,    trastorno de conducta alimentaria.</p>     <p> <b>Funcional</b>: trastorno del movimiento, discapacidad funcional operativa    por fracaso cognitivo-conductual, discapacidad sist&eacute;mica para actividades    cotidianas (Cacabelos, 1997).</p>     <p> En esta categor&iacute;a nosol&oacute;gica de demencia se engloban m&aacute;s    de 80 entidades cl&iacute;nicas diferentes seg&uacute;n criterios clasificatorios    (<a href="#t1">Tabla 1</a>). Es importante concientizarnos de que la demencia    representa mucho m&aacute;s que un simple trastorno de memoria y que los componentes    conductual y funcional tienen incluso mayor relevancia que el componente cognitivo    en t&eacute;rminos etiopatog&eacute;nicos, diagn &oacute;sticos, terap&eacute;uticos,    socioecon&oacute;micos y asistenciales (Cacabelos et al., 1996c, 1997,2000).    Por su parte, la EA se define como una demencia degenerativa de base gen&eacute;tica,    en la que convergen m&uacute;ltiples factores etiopatog &eacute;nicos, caracterizada    por la muerte prematura y progresiva de las neuronas, cuya tipificaci&oacute;n    fenot&iacute;pica est&aacute; representada por:</p>     <p>       <center>     <a name="t1"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02t1.gif"></a>   </center> </p>     <p> a. Cuadro cl&iacute;nico de demencia degenerativa primaria</p>     <p> b. Evidencia biol&oacute;gica de demencia demostrada por procedimientos diagn&oacute;sticos    instrumentales y/o marcadores biol&oacute;gicos fenot&iacute;picos.</p>     <p> c. Asociaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica a alteraciones gen&oacute;micas espec&iacute;ficas.</p>     <p> d. Presencia anatomopatol&oacute;gica de indicadores EA: placas seniles, deposici    &oacute;n amiloidea, ovillos neurofibrilares, p&eacute;rdida de contactos sin&aacute;pticos,    muerte neuronal selectiva (Cacabelos, 1991, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999). Este concepto    separa categ&oacute;ricamente la EA de otras formas de demencia y establece    una clara barrera entre EA y envejecimiento cerebral.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p> Las &aacute;reas de investigaci&oacute;n de la EA y otras demencias se clasifican    en diferentes categor&iacute;as, de forma similar a los procedimientos de trabajo    cient&iacute;- fico, m&eacute;dico, social y pol&iacute;tico que se siguen con    la mayor&iacute;a de los grandes problemas de salud que hoy afligen a las sociedades    desarrolladas (Cacabelos, 1999; Cacabelos et al., 1998a; L&oacute;pez &amp;    Murray, 1998; McKee &amp; Jacobson, 2000). En el caso de la demencia, los temas    de mayor inter&eacute;s cient &iacute;fico se han organizado en las siguientes    categor&iacute;as (<a href="#t2">Tabla 2</a>): epidemiolog &iacute;a, etiopatogenia, diagn&oacute;stico,    tratamiento, prevenci&oacute;n, asistencia sociosanitaria, asistencia familiar,    concientizaci&oacute;n social sobre la demencia como tema prioritario de salud,    aspectos &eacute;ticos y legales, pol&iacute;tica comunitaria, pol&iacute;tica    farmac&eacute;utica y harmonizaci&oacute;n de criterios a nivel internacional    y pol&iacute;tica alimentaria y nutrici&oacute;n (Cacabelos, 1997, 1999).</p>       <p>    <center><a name="t2"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02t2.gif"></a></center></p>     <p> <font size="3"><b>EPIDEMIOLOG&Iacute;A</b></font></p>     <p> Una buena epidemiolog&iacute;a es esencial para definir una enfermedad en    t&eacute;rminos de prevalencia, incidencia, factores de riesgo, distribuci&oacute;n    geogr&aacute;- fica, diferenciaci&oacute;n sexual, variaciones estacionales    y an&aacute;lisis predictivos que permitan establecer programas de intervenci&oacute;n    sanitaria, prevenci&oacute;n y planificaci&oacute;n de recursos (Cacabelos,    1999; Bachman et al., 1992; Rocca &amp; Amaducci, 1991). Las conclusiones epidemiol&oacute;gicas    m&aacute;s importantes, resultado de miles de estudios realizados en los &uacute;ltimos    20 a&ntilde;os en el campo de las demencias (v&eacute;ase Cacabelos, 1999),    podr&iacute;an resumirse en lo siguiente:</p>     <p> 1. La edad es el principal factor de riesgo en demencia senil y EA (<a href="#f1">Fig 1</a>).</p>     <p>    <center><a name="f1"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02f1.gif"></a></center></p>     <p>2. La prevalencia de demencia crece exponencialmente de los 65 a los 85 a&ntilde;os,    duplic&aacute;ndose cada 5-6 a&ntilde;os y estabiliz&aacute;ndose a partir de    los 85-90 a&ntilde;os.</p>     <p> 3. Las mujeres presentan un mayor riesgo de demencia, mientras que los hombres    parecen ser m&aacute;s susceptibles a padecer demencia vascular. En la mayor&iacute;a    de los estudios epidemiol&oacute;- gicos se observa una tendencia en los hombres    a padecer m&aacute;s EA que las mujeres antes de los 50-65 a&ntilde;os. Este    perfil se invierte por encima de los 60- 65 a&ntilde;os predominando la EA en    mujeres (<a href="#f2">Fig. 2</a>).</p>       ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>    <center><a name="f2"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02f2.gif"></a></center></p>     <p> 4. El bajo nivel educativo constituye un factor de riesgo para demencia, sobre    todo en mayores de 75 a&ntilde;os.</p>     <p>5. La historia familiar de demencia en un pariente de primer grado (padre,    madre, hermano) cuadruplica el riesgo de desarrollar demencia.</p>     <p> 6. La presencia de un factor gen&eacute;tico similar al existente en un familiar    de primer grado confiere al portador el m&aacute;ximo riesgo de EA.</p>     <p> 7. La historia de traumatismo craneal mayor, con p&eacute;rdida de conciencia,    o microtraumatismos repetidos, dobla el riesgo de padecer demencia.</p>     <p> 8. La presencia de patolog&iacute;a o factores de riesgo vascular (isquemia    coronaria, fibrilaci&oacute;n auricular, hipertensi &oacute;n, hipotensi&oacute;n,    etc) es un importante factor de riesgo para demencia, sobre todo en edades avanzadas.</p>     <p> 9. El tabaco podr&iacute;a proteger parcialmente frente a EA, pero incrementa    el riesgo de patolog&iacute;a cerebrovascular.</p>     <p> 10. Los hijos de madres a&ntilde;osas (&gt;40 a&ntilde;os) podr&iacute;an    estar en riesgo de padecer demencia con una frecuencia m&aacute;s alta que la    poblaci&oacute;n general.</p>     <p> 11. Otros muchos factores, aparentemente inespec&iacute;ficos (<a href="#t3">Tabla 3</a>), podr&iacute;an    contribuir a incrementar el riesgo de demencia de forma secundaria. Algunos    de estos factores podr&iacute;an ser metales y sustancias t&oacute;xicas ambientales    y/o nutricionales.</p>       ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>    <center><a name="t3"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02t3.gif"></a></center></p>     <p> 12. Existen variables sociodemogr&aacute;- ficas y &eacute;tnicas que podr&iacute;an    determinar factores de riesgo asociados a demencia. Por ejemplo, los negros    tienden a mostrar mayor prevalencia de demencia que los blancos, y en algunas    regiones geogr&aacute;ficas (Asia, Rusia), la demencia vascular parece predominar    sobre la EA. Igualmente, la demencia vascular predomina m&aacute;s en negros    que en blancos.</p>     <p>13. La EA es 2-3 veces m&aacute;s frecuente que la demencia vascular hasta    los 80 a&ntilde;os, a partir de los cuales la demencia vascular supera en frecuencia    a la EA.</p>     <p> 14. A partir de los 80 a&ntilde;os, gran parte de las demencias presentan    un importante componente vascular, por lo que la mayor&iacute;a de las demencias    a esta edad no son etiopatog&eacute;nicamente puras.</p>     <p>15. La demencia vascular tiene, en Occidente, una tasa de mortalidad m&aacute;s    alta que la EA. 16. La gravedad de la demencia en t&eacute;rminos de discapacidad    tambi&eacute;n tiende a ser mayor en la demencia vascular que en la EA. N&oacute;tese    la enorme dispersi&oacute;n de datos en tasas de prevalencia m&iacute;nimam    &aacute;xima, resultado de computar m&uacute;ltiples estudios internacionales    durante el periodo 1980-1997 (Fig. 1 y 2). Advi&eacute;rtase el hecho notable    de que hasta los 75 a&ntilde;os la prevalencia de demencia en hombres (3.01&plusmn;1.8%)    es mayor que en mujeres (2.76&plusmn;2.12%), pero luego prevalece el dominio    de las mujeres. La diferencia m&aacute;xima se alcanza en el grupo de 90-94    a&ntilde;os, con un rango de prevalencia de 5.93- 31.1% en hombres y 11.4-45.9%    en mujeres de diversos pa&iacute;ses (Cacabelos, 1999). Esta informaci&oacute;n    epidemiol &oacute;gica da soporte a la idea de que la prevalencia de demencia    no sigue un patr&oacute;n exponencial, pues superada cierta edad la poblaci&oacute;n    senil presenta cierto grado de protecci&oacute;n frente a EA y los casos de    EA pura tienden a manifestarse antes de los 80-85 a&ntilde;os.</p>     <p> Las tasas de incidencia siguen una progresi&oacute;n similar a las de prevalencia,    con cifras desde 1x 1000 a los 55- 60 a&ntilde;os hasta 60-100 x 1000 en mayores    de 90 a&ntilde;os (<a href="#f3">Fig. 3</a>). Los factores de riesgo para demencia con mayor valor    predictivo son la edad, el sexo y la herencia (Cacabelos, 1999). Es importante    hacer notar que en Espa&ntilde;a el 79.5% de las personas mayores de 55 a&ntilde;os    (85% mujeres, 74.4% hombres) manifiestan tener alguna enfermedad. S&oacute;lo    2.6% de las familias refieren demencia y la prevalencia de deterioro cognitivo    senil sigue patrones similares a otros pa&iacute;ses de nuestro entorno, con    importantes diferencias regionales y entre sexos (Cacabelos &amp; Alvarez, 1999).</p>       <p>    <center><a name="f3"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02f3.gif"></a></center></p>     <p> Aunque se han realizado numerosos estudios epidemiol&oacute;gicos en Espa&ntilde;a    y en Am&eacute;rica Latina, la dispersi&oacute;n de datos y metodolog&iacute;as    hace que no dispongamos de una estad&iacute;stica contrastada. Ser&iacute;a    recomendable: realizar estudios sectoriales por comunidades y pa&iacute;ses,    utilizar una misma metodolog &iacute;a en todos los estudios y crear una base    de datos iberoamericana que integrase los principales par&aacute;metros epidemiol&oacute;gicos    que se manejan a escala internacional.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p> <font size="3"><b>ETIOPATOGENIA</b></font></p>     <p> El conocimiento de la etiopatogenia de una enfermedad es esencial para entender    su naturaleza y poder dise- &ntilde;ar estrategias para alcanzar un diagn &oacute;stico    molecular y un tratamiento efectivo. La etiopatogenia de la demencia en general    y de la EA en particular es enormemente compleja, pues implica descifrar las    bases biol &oacute;gicas responsables de la muerte prematura de las neuronas.    Todas las c&eacute;lulas de nuestro organismo est&aacute;n sujetas a un programa    gen&eacute;tico que regula su g&eacute;nesis, diferenciaci&oacute;n, especializaci    &oacute;n y muerte. Algunas c&eacute;- lulas viven minutos, horas, d&iacute;as,    meses o a&ntilde;os, dependiendo de su funci &oacute;n y del momento madurativo    del individuo. Las neuronas son c&eacute;lulas altamente diferenciadas que no    se dividen y duran tanto como el ser vivo al que pertenecen. En el caso de la    EA, las neuronas sufren un proceso de destrucci&oacute;n gradual que empieza    probablemente en el momento en el que el cerebro deja de madurar alrededor de    los 25-30 a&ntilde;os. De modo que pasan entre 30 y 40 a&ntilde;os desde que    se inicia el deterioro neuronal hasta que se manifiesta la enfermedad (Braak    et al., 1994; Cacabelos, 1999).</p>     <p> Estudios prospectivos de 22 a&ntilde;os en la cohorte Framigham han revelado    que, con pruebas psicom&eacute;tricas, era posible detectar la fase precl&iacute;nica    de la EA con 10 a&ntilde;os de antelaci&oacute;n (El&iacute;as et al., 2000).    Con pruebas de neuroimagen funcional podemos detectar disfunciones m&iacute;nimas    en la poblaci&oacute;n a riesgo 20-30 a&ntilde;os antes de que se manifiesten    los primeros s&iacute;ntomas; y con procedimientos diagn&oacute;sticos moleculares    podemos predecir e identificar con un alto grado de fiabilidad el sector poblacional    con alto riesgo de desarrollar una demencia degenerativa. Aunque existen todav&iacute;a    muchas lagunas de conocimiento en los mecanismos causales de la EA, actualmente    entendemos su etiopatogenia como una cascada de eventos en cadena o circunstancias    biol&oacute;gicas interactuantes cuyo determinante final es la muerte de las    neuronas (Cacabelos, 1999, 2000; Cacabelos et al., 1999a; Mart&iacute;n, 1999;    Price et al., 1998) (<a href="#t4">Tabla 4</a>).</p>       <p>    <center><a name="t4"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02t4.gif"></a></center></p>     <p> Los principales eventos patog&eacute;nicos de la EA se clasifican en las siguientes    categor&iacute;as:</p>     <p> 1. Eventos patog&eacute;nicos primarios: (a) factores gen&eacute;ticos mutacionacionales    (APP, PS1, PS2), susceptibilidad gen &eacute;tica (APOE, A2M), y asociaciones    al&eacute;licas y/o genot&iacute;picas de riesgo; y (b) apoptosis neuronal.</p>     <p> 2. Eventos patog&eacute;nicos secundarios: (a) deposici&oacute;n de prote&iacute;na    b-amiloide (PBA) en placas seniles y vasos sangu&iacute;neos cerebrales (angiopat&iacute;a    amiloidea); (b) alteraciones en el citoesqueleto neuronal en forma de ovillos    neurofibrilares (NFT, neurofibrillary tangles; PHF, paired helical filaments)    como consecuencia de la hiperfosforilaci&oacute;n de prote&iacute;nas tau; y    (c) p&eacute;rdida de contactos sin&aacute;pticos y desarborizaci&oacute;n dendr&iacute;tica.</p>     <p> 3. Factores patog&eacute;nicos terciarios: (a) alteraci&oacute;n de los sistemas    de neurotransmisi &oacute;n colin&eacute;rgica, monoamin &eacute;rgica, neuropeptid&eacute;rgica    y aminoacid &eacute;rgica; (b) alteraciones neurotr &oacute;ficas, con fracaso    de los mecanismos tr&oacute;ficos para el mantenimiento de la supervivencia    neuronal; (c) disfunciones neuroinmunes, con activaci &oacute;n de mecanismos    microgliales; y (d) reacciones neuroinflamatorias en la vecindad de las placas    seniles y &aacute;reas de lesi&oacute;n neuronal.</p>     <p> 4. Eventos patog&eacute;nicos cuaternarios: (a) reacciones excitot&oacute;xicas    mediadas por glutamato; (b) alteraciones en la homeostasis del calcio i&oacute;nico;    (c) formaci &oacute;n de radicales libres y peroxidaci &oacute;n lip&iacute;dica    de membranas; (d) disfunciones mec&aacute;nicas y rheol&oacute;gicas en la hemodin&aacute;mica    cerebral; y (e) disregulaci&oacute;n de los mecanismos vasoendoteliales y alteraciones    cerebrovasculares (Cacabelos, 1995, 1997, 1999; Cacabelos et al., 1998b, 1999a,c,    2000; Kalaria &amp; Ince, 2000; De la Torre &amp; Hachinski, 1997; Jenner, 1994;    Benzi &amp; Moretti, 1995; Beal, 1997; Yan et al., 1996; Mattson, 1998; Wolozin    &amp; Behl, 2000a,b).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p> <font size="3"><b>GEN&Eacute;TICA</b></font></p>     <p> Pocos a&ntilde;os despu&eacute;s de que Alois Alzheimer describiera la enfermedad    en 1906 se pudo comprobar que la EA se acumulaba en determinadas familias (Pollen,    1993; Cacabelos, 1991, 1999). El conocimiento de la gen&eacute;tica de la EA    deriva de: estudios poblacionales, estudios familiares, estudios gemelares y    estudios de gen&eacute;tica molecular. De los estudios poblacionales y familiares    se infiere la existencia de una EA familiar (EAF) y una EA espor&aacute;dica    (EAE), que los estudios de gen&eacute;tica molecular no diferencian puesto que    en ambas se expresan genes similares con frecuencias muy parecidas. Los estudios    gemelares indican que la concordancia en gemelos monocig&oacute;ticos (10-50%)    es mucho m&aacute;s alta que en gemelos dicig&oacute;ticos (0-9%). En los casos    de EAF la herencia se manifiesta con un patr&oacute;n autos&oacute;mico dominante    de penetrancia completa. A&ntilde;adido a la documentaci &oacute;n de gen&eacute;tica    poblacional previa a 1980, lo que realmente ha aportado luz sobre la gen&eacute;tica    de la EA han sido los estudios de gen&eacute;tica molecular llevados a cabo    en los &uacute;ltimos 20 a&ntilde;os (v&eacute;ase Cacabelos, 1999; Roses, 1998;    Harrignton &amp; Roth, 1997).</p>     <p> En la actualidad se conocen m&aacute;s de diez localizaciones gen&oacute;micas    potencialmente alteradas en la EA y se distinguen diversas formas gen&eacute;ticas    de EA (<a href="#t5">Tabla 5</a>) asociadas a los genes APP/AD1, APOE/AD2, PS1/AD3, PS2/AD4, EAC12/AD5,    A2M. Se conocen otras formas de demencia relacionadas, como la demencia frontotemporal    (gen TAU), y otros loci de susceptibilidad (gen ACE1), as&iacute; como mutaciones    puntuales en el DNA mitocondrial (Cacabelos, 1999; Cacabelos et al., 1996b,    1999b; Hardy &amp; Gwinn-Hardy, 1998). Todo ello sugiere que la EA es una entidad    nosol&oacute;- gica resultante de m&uacute;ltiples lesiones y/o asociaciones    al&eacute;licas de riesgo que influyen sobre un potencial mecanismo de amiloidog&eacute;nesis    cerebral cuya disregulaci&oacute;n multilocativa puede conducir a la muerte    prematura de las neuronas (Wolozin &amp; Behl, 2000a,b). Hoy se conoce con cierto    detalle molecular c&oacute;mo los productos de los genes APOE, A2M, y presenilinas    co-participan en la regulaci&oacute;n del procesamiento del APP, y c&oacute;mo    alteraciones en esta ruta metab&oacute;lica inducen amiloidog&eacute;nesis y    formaci&oacute;n de PBA (Price et al., 1998; Hardy &amp; Gwinn-Hardy, 1998;    Wolozin &amp; Behl, 2000a,b). Pero &eacute;ste no es el &uacute;nico mecanismo    etiopatog&eacute;nico prevalente para desarrollar una demencia degenerativa    primaria. La emergencia de las tauopat&iacute;as (<a href="#f4">Fig. 4</a>), como formas de degeneraci&oacute;n    neuronal asociada a alteraciones en el gen de la prote&iacute;na TAU, que se    diferencian seg&uacute;n las bandas de expresi&oacute;n electrofor&eacute;tica    de la prote&iacute;na, as&iacute; como la presencia de EA genuina en pacientes    sin mutaciones aparentes en los genes hasta hoy identificados, parece sugerir    que el fenotipo EA/demencia es la expresi &oacute;n multiforme de diversas alteraciones    genot&iacute;picas.</p>       <p>    <center><a name="f4"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02f4.gif"></a></center></p>       <p>    <center><a name="t5"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02t5.gif"></a></center></p>     <p> Rastreando en las bases de datos del Proyecto Genoma Humano (PGH) hemos podido    comprobar que en pr&aacute;cticamente todos los cromosomas de la especie Homo    sapiens, excepto en el cromosoma 16, existen genes cuya disregulaci&oacute;n    puede dar lugar a alteraciones de la funci&oacute;n neuronal y ulterior neurodegeneraci&oacute;n,    por lo que parece plausible que la demencia resulte de la acumulaci&oacute;n    evolutiva de defectos gen&oacute;micos que propende a la eliminaci&oacute;n    selectiva, en fases postreproductoras, de los individuos portadores en una especie    altamente evolucionada. Esta podr&iacute;a ser una forma de selecci&oacute;n    natural para compensar el exceso de poblaci&oacute;n senil discapacitada o biol&oacute;gicamente    mal dotada para hacer frente a una senectud cognitivamente funcional. Esta hip&oacute;tesis    asienta en tres postulados:</p>     <p> 1. La demencia afecta a las estructuras cerebrales que regulan las funciones    m&aacute;s desarrolladas de nuestra especie (lenguaje, intelecto, memoria, praxis).</p>     <p>2. La apoptosis, por principio, es un mecanismo de autorregulaci&oacute;n celular    en situaciones cr&iacute;ticas.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p> 3. La asociaci&oacute;n de m&uacute;ltiples defectos gen&eacute;ticos y/o    asociaciones al&eacute;licas anticipa la edad de aparici&oacute;n de la demencia    (Cacabelos et al., 1999b) (<a href="#t6">Tabla 6</a>).</p>       <p>    <center><a name="t6"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02t6.gif"></a></center></p>     <p> El conocimiento de la gen&eacute;tica de la EA es de gran utilidad para: ayuda    diagn&oacute;stica, desarrollo de programas de farmacogen&oacute;mica y puesta    en marcha de planes de prevenci&oacute;n en la poblaci&oacute;n de alto riesgo    (Cacabelos et al., 1996b, 2000; Cacabelos, 1996, 2000a,b; Roses, 1998, 2000)    (<a href="#f5">Fig. 5</a>). El screening gen&eacute;tico debe usarse como ayuda diagn&oacute;stica    de acuerdo a una serie de recomendaciones que se resumen en la <a href="#t7">tabla 7</a>, teniendo    en cuenta que la mejor evaluaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica es aquella que incluye    el mayor n&uacute;- mero de genes. Para ello se est&aacute;n desarrollando kits    gen&eacute;ticos y chips de DNA. Tambi&eacute;n hay que considerar la enorme    pluralidad gen&oacute;mica de la EA, donde la distribuci&oacute;n de genotipos    y asociaciones al&eacute;licas de riesgo hace improbable que una &uacute;nica    estrategia terap&eacute;utica sea eficaz para un amplio n&uacute;mero de pacientes,    lo cual plantea el imperativo de desarrollar programas de farmacogen&oacute;mica    (Cacabelos, 2000 a,b; Cacabelos et al., 2000; Roses, 2000; Evans &amp; Relling,    1999; Issa, 2000).</p>       <p>    <center><a name="f5"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02f5.gif"></a></center></p>       <p>    <center><a name="t7"><img src="img/revistas/rcp/v30n3/v30n3a02t7.gif"></a></center></p>     <p> Estudios recientes demuestran c&oacute;mo el genotipo EA determina perfiles    genot&iacute;picos diferentes en cuanto a edad de comienzo, curso evolutivo    y grado de deterioro cognitivo, expresi &oacute;n central y perif&eacute;rica    de PBA y ApoE, perfusi&oacute;n cerebrovascular, actividad bioel&eacute;ctrica    cerebral, respuesta terap&eacute;utica y grado de atrofia cerebral (Cacabelos,    1996; Cacabelos et al., 1994, 1996b, 2000) .</p>     <p> <font size="3"><b>APOPTOSIS</b></font></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p> La apoptosis (muerte celular programada) es un proceso de autodestrucci &oacute;n    celular dirigido desde el genoma nuclear para optimizar el destino teleol&oacute;gico    de una c&eacute;lula, y se manifiesta como un fen&oacute;meno universal altamente    conservado en todas las especies (Steller, 1995; Jacobson et al., 1997; Hengartner,    1996; Horvitz, 1999; Thompson, 1995; Chai et al., 2000). El fen&oacute;meno    apopt&oacute;tico se desarrolla en 3 fases (fase de inducci&oacute;n, fase efectora,    fase de degradaci&oacute;n), en las que participan mecanismos nucleares, citoplasm&aacute;ticos,    plasmalemales y mitocondriales. La apoptosis en mam&iacute;feros puede activarse    a trav&eacute;s de m&uacute;ltiples est&iacute;mulos inductores y est&aacute;    regulada por genes proapopt&oacute;- ticos y antiapopt&oacute;ticos. En el caso    de las neuronas existen diversos tipos de neurogenes (estructurales, funcionales,    tanatogenes, ergogenes, oncogenes, autogenes, gerontogenes) cuya integridad    da lugar al normal funcionamiento de las neuronas (Cacabelos, 1999). Cuando    la alteraci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica se produce en fases de desarrollo aparece    atresia y/o teratog&eacute;nesis; si la activaci&oacute;n gen&eacute;tica ocurre    en fases de diferenciaci&oacute;n puede ocurrir la oncog &eacute;nesis, mientras    que defectos gen&eacute;- ticos que se activan tras la diferenciaci &oacute;n    neuronal dan lugar a disfunciones neuropsiqui&aacute;tricas. Finalmente, la    neurodegeneraci&oacute;n ocurre por activaci &oacute;n polig&eacute;nica entre    las fases de maduraci&oacute;n y envejecimiento.</p>     <p> En la EA la inducci&oacute;n de apoptosis puede ocurrir por se&ntilde;ales    primarias (end&oacute;genas) o secundarias (ex&oacute;genas). Mecanismos alternativos    en los que se producir&iacute;an reacciones inflamatorias y proliferativas del    entorno microglial y astroglial, con alteraciones en la membrana neuronal, podr    &iacute;an estar mediados por ceramida (Cacabelos, 1999; Cacabelos et al., 2000).    Hoy existen bastantes fundamentos para explicar en una teor&iacute;a global,    incluyendo los principales eventos etiopatog&eacute;nicos de la EA, los mecanismos    por los cuales se produce la muerte neuronal prematura en base a un potencial    fen&oacute;meno de apoptosis (Zhang et al., 1998; Wolozin &amp; Behl, 2000a,b).    A nivel molecular se ha visto c&oacute;mo la inserci&oacute;n de la mutaci&oacute;n    PS1-L286V en neuronas en cultivo las hac&iacute;a entrar en apoptosis; y a nivel    sist&eacute;mico se ha demostrado c&oacute;mo en la EA, en la demencia vascular    y en la enfermedad de Parkinson se produce una clara apoptosis linfocitaria    inducida por anti-CD3 (Cacabelos et al, 2000). En el caso de la EA, la apoptosis    linfocitaria es genotipo- espec&iacute;fica y la asociaci&oacute;n de genotipos    de riesgo potencia el proceso de apoptosis.</p>     <p> <font size="3"><b>DIAGN&Oacute;STICO<b></b></b></font></p>     <p> La heterogeneidad de la EA, su complejidad gen&eacute;tica y las m&uacute;ltiples    formas con que puede debutar una demencia, obligan a definir protocolos diagn&oacute;sticos    precisos que deben incluir los siguientes elementos procesales:</p>     <p> 1. Definici&oacute;n de criterios diagn&oacute;sticos (DSM-IV, NINCDS-ADRDA,    ICD- 10).</p>     <p> 2. Evaluaci&oacute;n cl&iacute;nica: general, psiqui &aacute;trica y neurol&oacute;gica.</p>     <p> 3. Examen neuropsicol&oacute;gico: cognitivo, conductual y funcional.</p>     <p> 4. Pruebas anal&iacute;ticas de laboratorio: sangre (bioqu&iacute;mica, hemograma,    serolog &iacute;a, &aacute;cido f&oacute;lico, vitamina B12), orina y l&iacute;quido    cefalorraqu&iacute;deo (excepcional).</p>     <p> 5. Estudio de neuroimagen: est&aacute;tica (TAC, MRI) y din&aacute;mica (PET,    SPECT, fMRI).</p>     <p> 6. EEG y estudio cartogr&aacute;fico.</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p> 7. Estudio de hemodin&aacute;mica cerebral y funci&oacute;n cerebrovascular    (ultrasonograf &iacute;a transcraneal).</p>     <p> 8. Screening gen&eacute;tico multifactorial (APP, APOE, PS1, PS2, c-FOS, A2M,    ACE1, TAU17, mtDNA).</p>     <p> 9. Pruebas espec&iacute;ficicas opcionales (PBA, Tau, ApoE)</p>     <p> 10. Examen neuropatol&oacute;gico postmortem para confirmaci&oacute;n anatomopatol    &oacute;gica (Cacabelos, 1996, 1997; Cacabelos et al., 1996b).</p>     <p><font size="3"><b>REFERENCIAS</b></font></p>     <!-- ref --><p> Abernethy, D.R., Schwartz, J.B. Calciumantagonist drugs. New Engl. J. Med.    1999; 341:1447-1457.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;[&#160;<a href="javascript:void(0);" onclick="javascript: window.open('/scielo.php?script=sci_nlinks&ref=000108&pid=S0034-7450200100030000200001&lng=','','width=640,height=500,resizable=yes,scrollbars=1,menubar=yes,');">Links</a>&#160;]<!-- end-ref --><!-- ref --><p> Adams, J.M., Cory, S. 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