<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?><article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id>1794-1237</journal-id>
<journal-title><![CDATA[Revista EIA]]></journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title><![CDATA[Revista EIA]]></abbrev-journal-title>
<issn>1794-1237</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name><![CDATA[Escuela de ingenieria de Antioquia]]></publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id>S1794-12372007000200010</article-id>
<title-group>
<article-title xml:lang="es"><![CDATA[CULTIVO DE TEJIDO CARTILAGINOSO ARTICULAR: ACERCAMIENTO CONCEPTUAL]]></article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Zapata]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Natalia María]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Zuluaga]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Natalia Janet]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[Betancur]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Silvia Natalia]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname><![CDATA[López]]></surname>
<given-names><![CDATA[Luis Ernesto]]></given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="A01"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="A01">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad CES  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<aff id="A02">
<institution><![CDATA[,Universidad Nacional de Colombia  ]]></institution>
<addr-line><![CDATA[ ]]></addr-line>
</aff>
<pub-date pub-type="pub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2007</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date pub-type="epub">
<day>00</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2007</year>
</pub-date>
<numero>8</numero>
<fpage>117</fpage>
<lpage>129</lpage>
<copyright-statement/>
<copyright-year/>
<self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S1794-12372007000200010&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&amp;pid=S1794-12372007000200010&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><self-uri xlink:href="http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_pdf&amp;pid=S1794-12372007000200010&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso"></self-uri><abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="es"><p><![CDATA[Con los métodos disponibles en el momento para la reconstrucción de tejidos, la reparación de defectos del tejido cartilaginoso no ha sido alcanzada completamente. Por esta razón, se ha recurrido a la ingeniería de tejidos, que busca el desarrollo de estrategias para obtener sustitutos funcionales de tejido cartilaginoso, con el fin de ofrecer soluciones terapéuticas a pacientes con pérdida o falla de este tipo de tejido. En el presente estudio se hace una breve revisión de la anatomía, histología, fisiología y patología del tejido cartilaginoso y de las terapias usuales para su reparación, además de dar a conocer el papel cumplido por la ingeniería de tejidos y los biomateriales en el desarrollo de soluciones terapéuticas en este campo.]]></p></abstract>
<abstract abstract-type="short" xml:lang="en"><p><![CDATA[The currently available methods for tissue repair have not been able to restore completely functional cartilage tissue. For this reason, tissue engineering has developed strategies for fabricating cartilage substitutes in order to offer therapeutic solutions to patients that could suffer from any kind of cartilage disease. The purpose of this article was to review the anatomy, histology, physiology, pathology of cartilage, and the therapies commonly used for repairing this tissue. This article also shows the role established by tissue engineering and biomaterials in this field.]]></p></abstract>
<kwd-group>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[cartílago]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[lesiones]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[terapias]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[ingeniería de tejidos]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="es"><![CDATA[biomateriales]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[cartilage]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[injuries]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[therapies]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[tissue engineering]]></kwd>
<kwd lng="en"><![CDATA[biomaterials]]></kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front><body><![CDATA[  <font face="Verdana"size="2">     <p align="center"><b><font size="4" face="Verdana">CULTIVO DE TEJIDO CARTILAGINOSO ARTICULAR: ACERCAMIENTO CONCEPTUAL</font></b></p>     <p align="center">&nbsp;</p> <font face="Verdana"size="2">     <p><b>Natalia Mar&iacute;a Zapata*,   Natalia Janet Zuluaga*,   Silvia Natalia Betancur*,   Luis Ernesto L&oacute;pez**</b></p>     <p>* Ingeniera Biom&eacute;dica EIA-CES, Investigadora del Grupo de Investigaci&oacute;n en Ingenier&iacute;a Biom&eacute;dica EIA-CES (Gibec), Escuela de Ingenier&iacute;a de Antioquia (EIA) y Universidad CES. <a href="mailto:nzapata@eia.edu.co">nzapata@eia.edu.co</a>; <a href="mailto:nzuluaga@gebarco.com.co">nzuluaga@gebarco.com.co</a>; <a href="mailto:nbetancur@gebarco.com.co">nbetancur@gebarco.com.co</a></p>     <p>  ** Bi&oacute;logo, Universidad de Antioquia; Mag&iacute;ster en Biotecnolog&iacute;a, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Jefe del Programa de Biolog&iacute;a CES-EIA, director del Grupo de Investigaci&oacute;n en Ingenier&iacute;a Biom&eacute;dica EIA-CES (Gibec) y docente de Ingenier&iacute;a Biom&eacute;dica EIA-CES. <a href="mailto:lelopez@ces.edu.co">lelopez@ces.edu.co</a></p>     <p>  Art&iacute;culo recibido 9-III-2007. Aprobado 19-XI-2007<BR />   Discusi&oacute;n abierta hasta junio de 2008 </p> <hr size="1" /> </font>     <p><font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>RESUMEN</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2">     <p>  Con los m&eacute;todos disponibles en el momento para la reconstrucci&oacute;n de tejidos, la reparaci&oacute;n de defectos del tejido cartilaginoso no ha sido alcanzada completamente. Por esta raz&oacute;n, se ha recurrido a la ingenier&iacute;a de tejidos, que busca el desarrollo de estrategias para obtener sustitutos funcionales de tejido cartilaginoso, con el fin de ofrecer soluciones terap&eacute;uticas a pacientes con p&eacute;rdida o falla de este tipo de tejido. En el presente estudio se hace una breve revisi&oacute;n de la anatom&iacute;a, histolog&iacute;a, fisiolog&iacute;a y patolog&iacute;a del tejido cartilaginoso y de las terapias usuales para su reparaci&oacute;n, adem&aacute;s de dar a conocer el papel cumplido por la ingenier&iacute;a de tejidos y los biomateriales en el desarrollo de soluciones terap&eacute;uticas en este campo.</p> </font>     <p>  <font size="2" face="Verdana"><font size="3"><b>PALABRAS CLAVE: </b></font>cart&iacute;lago; lesiones; terapias; ingenier&iacute;a de tejidos; biomateriales.</font></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2"> <hr size="1" /> </font>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font size="3" face="Verdana"> <b>ABSTRACT</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2">     <p>  The currently available methods for tissue repair have not been able to restore completely functional cartilage tissue. For this reason, tissue engineering has developed strategies for fabricating cartilage substitutes in order to offer therapeutic solutions to patients that could suffer from any kind of cartilage disease. The purpose of this article was to review the anatomy, histology, physiology, pathology of cartilage, and the therapies commonly used for repairing this tissue. This article also shows the role established by tissue engineering and biomaterials in this field.</p> </font>     <p>  <font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>KEY WORDS:</b> </font><font size="2" face="Verdana">cartilage; injuries; therapies; tissue engineering; biomaterials.</font></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2"> <hr size="1" /> </font>     <p><font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>1. INTRODUCCI&Oacute;N</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2">     <p>  Se ha encontrado que las lesiones aisladas y no tratadas del cart&iacute;lago hialino articular pueden llevar a un da&ntilde;o grande del tejido y concluir f&aacute;cilmente en el desarrollo de enfermedades degenerativas del tejido cartilaginoso, como es la osteoartritis temprana (Grunder et al., 2004). Por esta raz&oacute;n, es importante generar estrategias que permitan la reparaci&oacute;n de las lesiones del cart&iacute;lago y se evite tambi&eacute;n el progreso de estas afecciones (Martin et al., 2005).  </p>     <p>Los m&eacute;todos utilizados hasta ahora proponen diversas estrategias para la reparaci&oacute;n de defectos del tejido cartilaginoso, entre las que cabe resaltar el uso de trasplantes de tejido aut&oacute;logo (tejido del mismo paciente), heter&oacute;logo (tejido de un donante de la misma especie) o xenotrasplantes (tejido de un organismo de una especie diferente a la del receptor).   Sin embargo, no es f&aacute;cil encontrar donantes compatibles ni obtener un fragmento de tama&ntilde;o y forma adecuados, lo que dificulta el uso generalizado de estas t&eacute;cnicas. Adem&aacute;s, tanto el paciente como el donante se exponen a un alto riesgo de morbilidad e infecci&oacute;n posteriores a la intervenci&oacute;n quir&uacute;rgica, lo cual puede causar da&ntilde;o en la articulaci&oacute;n afectada (Bryant y Anseth, 2001; Martin et al., 2005).</p>     <p>  Otro m&eacute;todo usado es el implante de cart&iacute;lago obtenido mediante el cultivo in vitro bidimensional,   el cual produce una dediferenciaci&oacute;n celular, caracterizada   por la p&eacute;rdida de la morfolog&iacute;a y el patr&oacute;n de expresi&oacute;n g&eacute;nica propio del tejido cartilaginoso   (Masuda et al., 2003; De la Fuente et al., 2004; Gaissmaier et al., 2005). Los resultados de varios estudios han sugerido que la encapsulaci&oacute;n de condrocitos en diferentes biomateriales mantiene    el fenotipo cartilaginoso in vitro por per&iacute;odos de tiempo largos. &Eacute;stos permiten la generaci&oacute;n de una matriz extracelular compuesta por col&aacute;geno tipo II y agrec&aacute;n, lo que hace de este tejido un sustituto m&aacute;s funcional de cart&iacute;lago, con ciertas similitudes al encontrado in vivo (Almqvist et al., 2001; Masuda et al., 2003; Saas et al., 2004; Grunder et al., 2004).</p>     <p>  En el presente estudio se hace una breve revisi&oacute;n de la anatom&iacute;a, histolog&iacute;a, fisiolog&iacute;a y patolog&iacute;a   del tejido cartilaginoso, adem&aacute;s del papel de la ingenier&iacute;a de tejidos y los biomateriales en el desarrollo de soluciones terap&eacute;uticas.</p> </font></font>     <p><font size="2" face="Verdana"><b>2. EL CART&Iacute;LAGO</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2"><font face="Verdana"size="2">     <p>  Seg&uacute;n su histolog&iacute;a, el cart&iacute;lago se clasifica en cart&iacute;lago hialino articular, cart&iacute;lago hialino no articular, cart&iacute;lago el&aacute;stico y fibrocart&iacute;lago. El cart&iacute;lago   hialino articular recubre la superficie articular de los huesos largos y la extremidad ventral de las costillas. Por su parte, el cart&iacute;lago hialino no articular se encuentra en las fosas nasales, la tr&aacute;quea y los bronquios. El cart&iacute;lago el&aacute;stico est&aacute; presente en el pabell&oacute;n de la oreja, el conducto auditivo externo, la trompa de Eustaquio y la laringe. Por &uacute;ltimo, el fibrocart&iacute;lago hace parte de los discos intervertebrales   y de la inserci&oacute;n de tendones o ligamentos en los huesos (Fankhauser, 2004).</p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>  El tejido cartilaginoso est&aacute; compuesto por las c&eacute;lulas condrog&eacute;nicas, los condroblastos y los condrocitos, los cuales presentan diferentes caracter&iacute;sticas   de acuerdo con el tipo de cart&iacute;lago en el que se encuentren. Los condrocitos comprenden entre el 1 % y el 2 % (v/v) del cart&iacute;lago hialino articular   humano. En la edad adulta, los condrocitos generalmente no se dividen y su funci&oacute;n es ayudar a mantener la integridad de la superficie articular mediante actividades sint&eacute;ticas y catab&oacute;licas (Martin et al., 2005).</p>     <p>  El cart&iacute;lago presenta una matriz extracelular compuesta de agua, gases, metabolitos, cationes y un conjunto de macromol&eacute;culas que incluyen col&aacute;geno tipo II y proteoglucanos. Entre estos &uacute;ltimos se encuentran   el condroitin sulfato, el agrec&aacute;n y peque&ntilde;as cantidades de decorina, biglucano y fibromodulina, otros tipos de col&aacute;genos fibrilares, no fibrilares y mol&eacute;culas no colagenosas adicionales (Martin et al., 2004; Girotto et al., 2003; H&auml;uselmann et al., 1994).</p>     <p>  La presencia de col&aacute;geno tipo II es predominante. Esta mol&eacute;cula se sintetiza de dos formas, col&aacute;geno tipo IIA y IIB. El col&aacute;geno tipo IIA es sintetizado   por las c&eacute;lulas mesenquimatosas y epiteliales de tejidos precartilaginosos y no cartilaginosos, mientras el tipo IIB es sintetizado s&oacute;lo por los condrocitos. Por lo tanto, durante la diferenciaci&oacute;n en tejidos en proceso de condrog&eacute;nesis no se expresan los genes para el procol&aacute;geno tipo IIA, pero s&iacute; los de tipo IIB (Sandell et al., 1991; Ng et al., 1993).  </p>     <p>Por otra parte, los proteoglucanos, debido a su carga negativa, atraen cationes de sodio (Na+) y, por ende, mol&eacute;culas de agua, hidratando la matriz del cart&iacute;lago hasta un 80 %.Esto le confiere la resistencia caracter&iacute;stica frente a las fuerzas de compresi&oacute;n. Adem&aacute;s,   las cadenas laterales de glucosaminoglucanos forman enlaces electrost&aacute;ticos con el col&aacute;geno, de esta forma, la sustancia b&aacute;sica y las fibras de la matriz forman una estructura molecular cruzada resistente a las fuerzas de tensi&oacute;n. Dentro de los proteoglucanos, el agrec&aacute;n es el m&aacute;s destacado (Hall et al., 1996).</p>     <p><b>3. LESIONES DEL CART&Iacute;LAGO ARTICULAR</b></p>     <p>  Cl&iacute;nicamente, las lesiones del tejido cartilaginoso    se deben a defectos generalizados o a defectos    focales. Los primeros afectan todo el tejido y se deben ante todo a la osteoartritis; los segundos comprometen una peque&ntilde;a porci&oacute;n y se deben a traumas en las articulaciones (Grunder et al., 2004; Toegel et al., 2007).</p>     <p>  La integridad del cart&iacute;lago articular se mantiene   mediante la liberaci&oacute;n regulada de hormonas, factores de crecimiento y citoquinas (<a href="img/revistas/eia/n8/n8a10tab1.gif" target="_blank">tabla 1</a>) producidas   por los condrocitos, que a su vez regulan la divisi&oacute;n celular, la s&iacute;ntesis y la degradaci&oacute;n de la matriz extracelular condrog&eacute;nica. Cuando el cart&iacute;lago articular   se lesiona, se pierde el equilibrio proporcionado por los factores presentes en el tejido, lo cual genera una respuesta de los condrocitos que consiste en el incremento de la proliferaci&oacute;n celular y de la s&iacute;ntesis de matriz en el sitio de la lesi&oacute;n. Sin embargo, esta respuesta   es temporal y cesa muy pronto, posiblemente debido a la falta de una provisi&oacute;n constante de estos factores (Martin et al., 2005; Buckwalter, 1998).</p>     <p>  El suministro de factores de crecimiento y de diferenciaci&oacute;n se realiza &uacute;nicamente por difusi&oacute;n del fluido sinovial (Mankin, 1974); adem&aacute;s, algunos de los proteoglucanos de la matriz tienen propiedades que pueden prevenir la adhesi&oacute;n celular, limitando as&iacute; cualquier proceso de reparaci&oacute;n. Lo anterior hace dif&iacute;cil la integraci&oacute;n adecuada del tejido en reparaci&oacute;n y el cart&iacute;lago natural (Martin et al., 2004; Mankin, 1974).</p>     <p>  Despu&eacute;s de una lesi&oacute;n, el cart&iacute;lago articular tiene una capacidad muy limitada de autorregeneraci&oacute;n,   ya que no es penetrado por vasos sangu&iacute;neos ni linf&aacute;ticos (Martin et al., 2004; Bryant y Anseth, 2001). Este tejido puede degenerarse mucho antes de que los s&iacute;ntomas cl&iacute;nicos se hagan evidentes.</p>     <p><b>4. TERAPIAS PARA LA REPARACI&Oacute;N DEL CART&Iacute;LAGO ARTICULAR</b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p>  Entre las t&eacute;cnicas m&aacute;s utilizadas para la reparaci&oacute;n de lesiones del cart&iacute;lago articular se encuentran:</p>     <p> Las pr&oacute;tesis, por lo general, eliminan el dolor y restablecen en forma parcial la funcionalidad, pero su durabilidad es limitada (Risbud et al., 2001; Temenoff y Mikos, 2000). Por esto, principalmente para personas  j&oacute;venes, es importante identificar procedimientos alternativos para reparar, de forma permanente, las lesiones del cart&iacute;lago o, por lo menos, para retrasar el implante de una articulaci&oacute;n artificial.</p>     <p>  La microfractura consiste en perforar la superficie    subcondral para que las c&eacute;lulas progenitoras mesenquimatosas,    provenientes de la m&eacute;dula, alcancen la lesi&oacute;n y formen la nueva matriz cartilaginosa. No obstante, el tejido regenerado carece de la estructura, composici&oacute;n, propiedades mec&aacute;nicas y durabilidad del cart&iacute;lago articular (Martin et al., 2005).</p>     <p>  Los autoinjertos y aloinjertos consisten en aislar periostio aut&oacute;logo o heter&oacute;lgo respectivamente y encajarlos a presi&oacute;n dentro de agujeros perforados<br />   en el lugar de la lesi&oacute;n para producir tejido cartilaginoso. No obstante, el principal limitante de este tipo de procedimientos es la disponibilidad y compatibilidad del tejido del donante y la morbilidad    inducida en el paciente (Bryant y Anseth, 2001; Martin et al., 2004).</p> </font></font>     <p><font size="2" face="Verdana">  La t&eacute;cnica de implante de condrocitos aut&oacute;logos    consiste en aislar enzim&aacute;ticamente condrocitos articulares sanos, los cuales son expandidos por medio de un cultivo en monocapa y luego reinsertados    en el sitio del defecto debajo del periostio. Las principales limitantes de esta t&eacute;cnica son el mecanismo de fijaci&oacute;n del injerto y la confiabilidad de los m&eacute;todos utilizados para evaluar la funcionalidad    de los implantes in vivo (Martin et al., 2005). Por lo anterior, la contribuci&oacute;n de esta t&eacute;cnica en la reparaci&oacute;n de defectos de cart&iacute;lago est&aacute; por definir (Beris et al., 2005).</font></p>     <p><font size="2" face="Verdana">  Otra forma prometedora de inducir la formaci&oacute;n    de cart&iacute;lago es mediante la inyecci&oacute;n local de factores de crecimiento, prote&iacute;nas funcionales y factores<br />   de transcripci&oacute;n. Sin embargo, hay limitaciones en cuanto al mantenimiento de las concentraciones adecuadas en los sitios afectados durante los periodos requeridos. Igualmente, la aplicaci&oacute;n directa de estas sustancias tiene una vida media muy corta. Entonces, es importante que los factores de reparaci&oacute;n puedan sintetizarse localmente de una forma sostenida y controlable en el sitio del defecto. Por lo tanto, los factores producidos de manera end&oacute;gena pueden ser eficientes (Martin et al., 2005; Schuler et al., 2000). En la tabla 1 se mencionan los principales factores relacionados con la condrog&eacute;nesis y el mantenimiento de la integridad del tejido cartilaginoso.</font></p>     <p><b><font size="2" face="Verdana"> 5. LA INGENIER&Iacute;A DEL TEJIDO CARTILAGINOSO</font></b></p>     <p><font size="2" face="Verdana">  El objetivo principal de la ingenier&iacute;a de tejidos es buscar la aplicaci&oacute;n de los principios de la ingenier&iacute;a    y de las ciencias de la vida en el desarrollo de sustitutos que restauren, mantengan o mejoren las funciones de un tejido espec&iacute;fico (Langer y Vacanti, 1993). En particular, la ingenier&iacute;a del tejido cartilaginoso<br />   busca generar implantes in vitro que puedan ser funcional y estructuralmente competentes a partir de c&eacute;lulas aut&oacute;logas (Gaissmaier et al., 2005).</font></p>     <p><font size="2" face="Verdana">  El implante de tejido cartilaginoso generado in vitro, comparado con los procedimientos mencionados,   permite mejor fijaci&oacute;n y recuperaci&oacute;n m&aacute;s eficiente de la actividad de la articulaci&oacute;n. Para generar    in vitro tejido cartilaginoso uniforme y de tama&ntilde;o definido a partir de c&eacute;lulas humanas, es necesario primero identificar una fuente apropiada de c&eacute;lulas condrog&eacute;nicas, ya que extraer una biopsia de una articulaci&oacute;n significa causar un da&ntilde;o adicional a la superficie del cart&iacute;lago. Segundo, definir los factores bioactivos requeridos por estas c&eacute;lulas, las caracter&iacute;sticas    de las matrices de cultivo tridimensionales en las que las c&eacute;lulas se cultivan y la estimulaci&oacute;n f&iacute;sica que deben tener para facilitar el desarrollo y la maduraci&oacute;n del cart&iacute;lago en un ambiente controlado (Lee et al., 2000; Martin et al., 2005).</font></p>     <p><b><font size="2" face="Verdana">  5.1 Fuentes celulares</font></b></p>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><font size="2" face="Verdana">  Con el fin de solucionar los inconvenientes en cuanto a la fuente celular, se han propuesto algunas opciones, ya sea para aprovechar eficientemente una biopsia de cart&iacute;lago articular o utilizar otras fuentes celulares que incluyen condrocitos de cart&iacute;lago no articular o c&eacute;lulas madre mesenquimatosas (Martin et al., 2005).</font></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2"><font face="Verdana"size="2">     <p>  En el uso de condrocitos articulares humanos para este fin, se ha visto que su proliferaci&oacute;n in vitro se limita y disminuye con la edad del paciente (Evans y Georgescu, 1983). Esta t&eacute;cnica requiere el aislamiento de los condrocitos de su ambiente natural y luego su cultivo en monocapa, hasta alcanzar la cantidad de c&eacute;lulas apropiada, sin embargo, en este tipo de cultivo, los condrocitos r&aacute;pidamente cambian su perfil biosint&eacute;tico a un fenotipo similar al de los fibroblastos   (Masuda et al., 2003; Schnabel et al., 2002; De la Fuente et al., 2004; Gaissmaier et al., 2005); este   fen&oacute;meno se conoce como dediferenciaci&oacute;n celular (Marijnissen et al., 2000; Furukawa et al., 1980; Takigawa et al., 1987; Livne, 1994). Una vez que los condrocitos est&aacute;n dediferenciados, su capacidad   de rediferenciaci&oacute;n es muy peque&ntilde;a (De Haart et al., 1999). No obstante, cuando los condrocitos se transfieren a una matriz tridimensional, se ha visto que el perfil biosint&eacute;tico de estas c&eacute;lulas se estabiliza (Zaucke et al., 2001; H&auml;uselmann et al., 1994; Bonaventure et al., 1994; Liu et al., 1998).</p>     <p>  Es posible obtener condrocitos a partir de cart&iacute;lago hialino no articular mediante biopsias del cart&iacute;lago de la nariz o las costillas, utilizando un procedimiento menos invasivo que la extracci&oacute;n de cart&iacute;lago de una articulaci&oacute;n. Adem&aacute;s, debido a que el sitio de toma de la biopsia no est&aacute; sometido a fuerzas compresivas, hay un menor riesgo de da&ntilde;o. Recientemente, se ha demostrado que en relaci&oacute;n con los condrocitos articulares, los condrocitos humanos provenientes del septo nasal proliferan unas cuatro veces m&aacute;s r&aacute;pidamente y tienen una mayor capacidad para generar tejido cartilaginoso despu&eacute;s del cultivo en monocapa (Kafienah et al., 2002). No obstante, se har&iacute;an necesarios m&aacute;s datos de estudios in vivo para demostrar la funcionalidad de los condrocitos nasales en sitios donde normalmente se encuentra cart&iacute;lago hialino articular (Martin et al., 2005).</p>     <p>  Una alternativa al uso de condrocitos diferenciados   es el uso de c&eacute;lulas madre. &Eacute;stas tienen mayor capacidad de proliferaci&oacute;n, mejor respuesta a los factores de crecimiento y potencial de diferenciarse en diversos tipos de c&eacute;lulas especializadas, incluso en personas de edad avanzada (Chen et al., 2004; Martin et al., 2005).</p>     <p> Para la ingenier&iacute;a de cart&iacute;lago se ha incrementado   el uso de c&eacute;lulas madre provenientes de diferentes fuentes que incluyen m&eacute;dula &oacute;sea (Pittenger   et al., 1999; Awad et al., 2004; Gurevitch et al., 2003), hueso trabecular, tejido muscular, tejido adiposo (Awad et al., 2004; Gurevitch et al., 2003), membrana sinovial (De Bari et al., 2001), entre otros. No obstante, su utilidad se ha visto limitada por la dificultad para ejercer un control preciso sobre su potencial de diferenciaci&oacute;n (Martin et al., 2005).</p>     <p><b> 5.2 Los biomateriales</b></p>     <p>  Las propiedades funcionales de un sustituto de cart&iacute;lago obtenido por medio de la ingenier&iacute;a de tejidos dependen en gran parte de la selecci&oacute;n del biomaterial apropiado para la construcci&oacute;n de una matriz tridimensional. Los biomateriales utilizados en el dise&ntilde;o de matrices tridimensionales para la ingenier&iacute;a   de tejidos deben cumplir varios criterios, con el fin de maximizar las posibilidades de reparaci&oacute;n exitosa. Entre estos criterios podemos encontrar la biodegradabilidad y biocompatibilidad del biomaterial,   la capacidad de difusi&oacute;n para el transporte de nutrientes y metabolitos, la habilidad para regular la morfolog&iacute;a celular que afecta la diferenciaci&oacute;n y la presencia de ligandos bioactivos que proporcionen sitios de fijaci&oacute;n para las c&eacute;lulas (Freed et al., 1993; Awad et al., 2004).</p>     <p>  Uno de los obst&aacute;culos para la ingenier&iacute;a del tejido   cartilaginoso ha sido el desarrollo de una matriz de cultivo tridimensional que tenga las propiedades mec&aacute;nicas que se requieren, tales como la capacidad para enfrentar los grandes esfuerzos de contacto y las tensiones de una articulaci&oacute;n. Adem&aacute;s, debe permitir el crecimiento de tejido funcional y las interacciones apropiadas entre las c&eacute;lulas y la matriz para estimular el crecimiento del tejido (Guilak et al., 2001; Butler et al., 2000). Es importante que estas matrices tambi&eacute;n permitan la obtenci&oacute;n de tejidos de diferente grosor de acuerdo con el requerimiento in vivo, ya que el cart&iacute;lago articular humano var&iacute;a en grosor seg&uacute;n su ubicaci&oacute;n (Bryant y Anseth, 2001).</p>     <p> En la construcci&oacute;n de matrices para la regeneraci&oacute;n    de cart&iacute;lago se han utilizado materiales como hidrogeles de alginato y agarosa, pol&iacute;meros de &aacute;cido l&aacute;ctico y &aacute;cido glic&oacute;lico, pol&iacute;meros de gelificaci&oacute;n termorreversible,    compuestos de la matriz extracelular y algunos materiales naturales y sint&eacute;ticos utilizados como portadores. Diferentes hidrogeles a base de alginato (Cao et al., 1998; Paige et al., 1995), fibrina (Sims et al., 1998; Silverman et al., 1999), agarosa (Rowley et al., 1999) y &oacute;xido de polietileno (Elisseeff et al., 1999) se han utilizado para la encapsulaci&oacute;n de condrocitos y su posterior implantaci&oacute;n in vivo. Sin embargo, estos materiales presentan algunas limitantes en cuanto a sus propiedades mec&aacute;nicas (Awad et al., 2004; Bryant y Anseth, 2001). Las c&eacute;lulas de cart&iacute;lago cultivadas en esferas de alginato se han estudiado en modelos animales de conejo mediante su implantaci&oacute;n en articulaciones que presentan da&ntilde;o estructural del cart&iacute;lago y se ha logrando una reparaci&oacute;n completa del defecto despu&eacute;s de 6 meses de tratamiento (Fragonas et al., 2000). En la <a href="img/revistas/eia/n8/n8a10tab2.gif" target="_blank">tabla 2</a> se describen algunos de los materiales usados en la construcci&oacute;n de matrices tridimensionales para el cultivo de tejido cartilaginoso.</p>     <p>  En algunos casos, el implante in vivo de sustitutos    de cart&iacute;lago construidos a partir de ingenier&iacute;a de tejidos se puede facilitar con el uso de un material portador. &Eacute;ste puede proporcionar fuerza a los biomateriales   d&eacute;biles, adem&aacute;s de mantener las c&eacute;lulas dentro del sustituto. Un portador ideal debe ofrecer la posibilidad de ser moldeable en casi cualquier forma y su biodegradaci&oacute;n no debe tener ning&uacute;n efecto adverso sobre la viabilidad o el metabolismo celular (Freed et al., 1994a; Marijnissen et al., 2000). En la <a href="img/revistas/eia/n8/n8a10tab3.gif" target="_blank">tabla 3</a> se encuentran materiales usados como portadores, uno natural y otro sint&eacute;tico, adem&aacute;s de sus ventajas y desventajas.</p> </font>     ]]></body>
<body><![CDATA[<p><b><font size="3" face="Verdana">6. CONCLUSI&Oacute;N</font></b></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2">     <p>  La comunidad cient&iacute;fica mundial sigue en la b&uacute;squeda de tratamientos de las lesiones del cart&iacute;lago   articular, lo que se evidencia en la diversidad de estrategias desarrolladas en los &uacute;ltimos a&ntilde;os en este campo.</p>     <p>  De los tratamientos usados en la actualidad el propuesto por la ingenier&iacute;a de tejidos constituye la mejor opci&oacute;n por cinco razones b&aacute;sicas: (1) cuenta con diversidad de fuentes celulares y de biomateriales   disponibles para experimentaci&oacute;n, (2) la elecci&oacute;n de la fuente celular y del biomaterial adecuados puede evitar la morbilidad y el rechazo del implante por parte del paciente, (3) las propiedades del tejido in vitro pueden llegar a ser muy similares a las del tejido in vivo, (4) el implante generado permite una mejor fijaci&oacute;n y una recuperaci&oacute;n m&aacute;s eficiente de la actividad de la articulaci&oacute;n, (5) la t&eacute;cnica puede ser reproducible. Finalmente, es necesario realizar investigaciones locales que permitan apropiarse de estos avances en el campo de la ingenier&iacute;a de tejidos cartilaginosos.</p> </font>     <p><font size="3" face="Verdana"> <b>AGRADECIMIENTOS</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2">     <p>  Los autores expresan sus agradecimientos al programa de J&oacute;venes Investigadores e Innovadores   de Colciencias (convenio 111-2005), a la Escuela de Ingenier&iacute;a de Antioquia &ndash;EIA&ndash;, a la Universidad CES, al doctor Francisco Valencia y sus colaboradores de la planta de faenado de la Central Ganadera de Medell&iacute;n S.A. en Medell&iacute;n, Colombia.</p> </font>     <p><font size="3" face="Verdana"><b>BIBLIOGRAF&Iacute;A</b></font></p> <font face="Verdana"size="2">     <!-- ref --><p>  Almqvist K. F., Wang L., Wang J., Baeten D., Cornelissen   M., Verdonk R., Veys E. M. and Verbruggen G. 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